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98-655: The report combined narrative with statistics to criticize the Department of Interior 's (DOI) implementation of the Dawes Act and overall conditions on reservations and in Indian boarding schools. The Meriam Report was the first general study of Indian conditions since the 1850s, when the ethnologist and former US Indian Agent Henry R. Schoolcraft had completed a six-volume work for the US Congress. The Meriam Report provided much of

196-476: A bartering system can function within the reservation community, it inhibits economic interaction with those off the reservation or on other reservations, meaning, non-cash economies serve to further isolate reservation residents from the national or global economy. For employment, education, and financial opportunity, many reservation residents are expected to leave the reservation. However, reservations were placed intentionally far from urban centers, and many of

294-627: A " culture of fear " and of "ethical failure." Devaney has also said, "Simply stated, short of a crime, anything goes at the highest levels of the Department of Interior." Launched in June of 2021, the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative intended to investigate federal Indian boarding school policies and multi-generational impacts of trauma on American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian children. Released in two volumes,

392-419: A combination of federally and locally managed day schools. Assistance programs aimed at forcing cultural change on tribal members were replaced with general assistance programs comparable to those available to the general population. However, by the time these changes occurred, traditional cultures had been severely and violently reduced, local economies had not been developed, families had been broken apart, and

490-557: A distrust of outsiders present data collection challenges. Lastly, an overwhelming majority of research focuses on the Pine Ridge and Navajo Reservations, suggesting a need for more comparative analyses of conditions on individual reservations. Figures from the 2000 census. The federal government allows tribes some authority in creating their own versions of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) with federal monies. Such programs must abide by federal regulations, such as

588-494: A geographic separation from areas of opportunity. Sociologist Gary Sandefur has called reservations the "first underclass areas" because of their concentrated poverty, high unemployment, and low educational attainment levels. Sociologist Loïc Wacquant has described reservations as areas of "socio-spatial seclusion," where residents are corralled and isolated, and that the reservations were created to immobilize native peoples. The official unemployment rate on reservations as of

686-432: A greater number of eligible individuals to become recipients. The amount of money made available to tribes is calculated from the amount that individual states made available to reservation residents in years prior. Unfortunately, many states did not educate reservation residents on procedures for applying for aid, meaning that the number of receiving individuals was less than the number of eligible individuals, and limiting

784-441: A large enough reservation-based sample to present data. Researchers gathering data on American Indians rarely differentiate between reservation residents and non-reservation residents, even though there are huge differences in lifestyles and often much tension between the groups. Furthermore, the rural nature of many reservations, the lack of available contact information and telephone numbers, protective rules by tribal councils, and

882-507: A member of Congress for New Mexico, took the oath of office as secretary, becoming the first American Indian to lead an executive department, and the third woman to lead the department. DOI Convocation Honor Award is the most prestigious recognition that can be granted by the department. The following awards are presented at the Honor Awards Convocation: In 2018, DOI established 12 organizational regions to be used across

980-615: A member of the president's Cabinet . The current secretary is Deb Haaland . As of mid-2004, the department managed 507 million acres (2,050,000 km ) of surface land, or about one-fifth of the land in the United States. It manages 476 dams and 348 reservoirs through the Bureau of Reclamation , 431 national parks , monuments, historical sites, etc. through the National Park Service , and 544 national wildlife refuges through

1078-453: A new administration took office in Washington." This field work produced a report of 847 pages consisting of the following eight sections: The conclusion of the report reflects the opinions of the survey team. For example, the report states that "any policy for Indians based on the notion that they can or should be kept permanently isolated from other Americans is bound to fail." In the report,

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1176-410: A population is the percentage of families earning less than half of the poverty threshold. For a family of four in 2010, the deep poverty threshold was approximately $ 11,000 or less than $ 3,000 per person. On large reservations, the deep poverty rate is as much as six times the national rate. On average, the deep poverty rate on the largest reservations is almost four times the national rate. A breakdown

1274-415: A resentment of formal education. Through the boarding school era, Westernized education was synonymous with cultural destruction. Even since the abolition of boarding schools, levels of formal educational attainment have remained very low. Overall, just over half of the adults on reservations have a high school diploma. Reservation residents' high school graduation rate is half that of all American Indians in

1372-526: A separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by presidents from James Madison to James Polk . The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the proposal new steam as the responsibilities of the federal government grew. Polk's secretary of the treasury , Robert J. Walker , became a vocal champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his annual report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. He noted that

1470-438: A team because many of the prospective members could not leave their jobs. The IGR required team members to be "persons highly qualified as specialists in their respective fields, scientific in their approach, not sensationalists, and free from preconceived views and opinions that would interfere with their impartiality and fairness in gathering and interpreting the facts." He finally gathered a team composed of several specialists in

1568-484: A trained and experienced white man could scarcely wrest a reasonable living." Not only was the loss of land a factor in reservation poverty found on reservations, but the land they held was largely unsuitable for family farming and agriculture. The report identified the problems with changing political appointees under elected presidential administrations. Elections tended to bring about a change in top political appointees and changes in economic development programs; thus,

1666-509: A variety of disciplines: Ray A. Brown (legal aspects), Henry Roe Cloud (Indian adviser), Edward Everett Dale (economic conditions), Emma Duke (Indian migration to urban areas), Dr. Herbert Edwards (physician) (health), Fayette Avery McKenzie (source materials), Mary Louise Mark (family life), W. Carson Ryan, Jr. (education), and William J. Spillman (agriculture). Authorized by the Institute for Government Research on June 12, 1926, at

1764-493: A vehicle. However, barely one percent of reservation residents rely on any kind of public transportation. Although the federal government has made funds available to improve transportation on reservations, local transportation authorities have not taken advantage of these monies. These local authorities often lack the human capital needed to engineer and carry out improvements. The lack of safe roads and adequate transportation further isolates reservation communities and strengthens

1862-541: Is poverty . In 2010, the poverty rate on US reservations was 28.4 percent, compared with 22 percent among all Native Americans (on and off reservations). The U.S. poverty rate among all groups is much lower, at 12.7 percent as of 2016. In addition to poverty rates, reservations are hindered by education levels significantly lower than the national average. Poor healthcare services, low employment, substandard housing, and deficient economic infrastructure are also persistent problems. The official poverty rate on reservations

1960-720: Is 28.4 percent, compared with 12.7 nationally. About 36 percent of families with children are below the poverty line on reservations, compared with 9.2 percent of families nationally. These figures are absolute poverty rates as determined by the US Census . In 2010, the poverty threshold for a family of four with two children was $ 22,113. Some reservations in Washington , California , Wisconsin , Michigan , North Dakota , South Dakota , Arizona , and New Mexico fare worse, with more than 60 percent of residents living in poverty. Income levels on some reservations are extremely low. Five of

2058-548: Is Bryan Newland, an enrolled member of the Bay Mills Indian Community . The department has been the subject of disputes over proper accounting for American Indian Trusts set up to track the income and distribution of monies that are generated by the trust and specific American Indian lands, which the government leases for fees to companies that extract oil, timber, minerals, and other resources. Several cases have sought an accounting of such funds from departments within

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2156-419: Is also higher than national averages. This is especially true among youth, with the rate of youth drug use among reservation populations more than twice that of the general population. The suicide rate among reservation residents is twice that of the general population, suggesting the troubling psychological impact of living in areas of extreme and concentrated poverty. In fact, among youth ages 15–24, suicide

2254-407: Is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal lands and natural resources . It also administers programs relating to Native Americans , Alaska Natives , Native Hawaiians , territorial affairs, and insular areas of the United States, as well as programs related to historic preservation. About 75% of federal public land

2352-465: Is managed by the department, with most of the remainder managed by the Department of Agriculture 's Forest Service . The department was created on March 3, 1849. It is headquartered at the Main Interior Building , located at 1849 C Street NW in Washington, D.C. The department is headed by the secretary of the interior , who reports directly to the president of the United States and is

2450-458: Is more than the enforcement of equitable protection of human health and natural resources, it is also a matter of tribal sovereignty, self determination, and redistribution of power. The field of environmental justice (EJ) focuses on measuring and mitigating patterns of disproportionate exposure to environmental pollutants and health hazards, has been a useful ally for Native nations in the fight against environmental degradation on reservations. Over

2548-431: Is provided in the following table. Figures from the 2000 census. Historic data on poverty on reservations is extremely limited because of the tumultuous history of gathering data in these areas. American Indians were not included in census counts until 1840. Reservation-specific data was only produced following 1870. In the 1970s, poverty on reservations decreased by as much as 20 percent on many reservations. In

2646-426: Is the leading cause of death on reservations. Reservation residents are eligible for all federal social assistance programs, including Temporary Aid for Needy Families (TANF) , Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and food stamp programs. In addition, Food Distribution on Indian Reservations (FDPIR), often called "commodities," provides in-kind handouts of food. This program is the result of treaties established in

2744-467: The American Revolution , the United States' strategy for native relations was to purchase Native American land by treaties. The United States also sought to assimilate Native Americans. The reservation system was created following the expansion of the United States into tribal lands. White settlers were considered unable to live alongside native peoples, and so various treaties continually limited

2842-465: The Department of Homeland Security primarily and the Department of Justice secondarily. The Department of the Interior has often been humorously called "the Department of Everything Else" because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, but those duties were placed in the Department of State . The idea of

2940-493: The Fish and Wildlife Service . The largest land management agency is the Bureau of Land Management , managing about one-eighth of the land in the United States. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the interior ministries of other nations, which are usually responsible for police matters and internal security. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by

3038-473: The Indian Reorganization Act , which imposed particular forms of governance and organization for tribal leadership. Traditional systems of social and political organization were replaced by forced constitutional forms and acted as a tool for further assimilation. Forced assimilation policies explicitly aimed to forcibly strip Native people of their history, identities and their livelihoods. Because

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3136-572: The Senate . The department was established on March 3, 1849 (9  Stat.   395 ), the eve of President Zachary Taylor 's inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill. The first secretary of the interior was Thomas Ewing . Several of

3234-752: The United States General Land Office had little to do with the Treasury and also highlighted the Indian Affairs office , part of the Department of War , and the Patent Office , part of the Department of State . Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be brought together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the department passed the House of Representatives on February 15, 1849, and spent just over two weeks in

3332-528: The postal service , commodity and provisions office, and tribal police forces. Troublesomely, the lack of quality educational systems and job opportunities has created a reservation workforce that lacks the training and education demanded by many professions. Because reservation residents have not had the opportunity to receive formal training and credentialing, they are often not eligible for what few jobs are available. Even tribal leadership and administrative positions are occasionally staffed by individuals from off

3430-552: The 1980s, however, these gains were lost, and rates rose to levels comparable to those in the 2000. Through 2016, though, rates again rose, and rates in 2000 were very close to those in 1969. Explanations for these fluctuations suggest a need for further research, and careful consideration of how data was gathered, to ensure that figures reflect true changes in poverty rates rather than changes in reporting. Historical data not available for Uintah and Ouray and Tohono O'odham Reservations. Figures from Trosper (1996). Following

3528-646: The 2000 census was 14 percent, but there is much variation. Reservations nearer urban centers, especially on the East Coast, tend to have employment rates similar to or higher than the national average. On many large, rural reservations, though, a majority of adults are unemployed or out of the workforce. On reservations in California , Oregon , Nevada , Arizona , Utah , Florida , Washington , New Mexico , Nebraska , Montana , and Alaska , reservation unemployment rates are above 25 percent. On some California reservations,

3626-747: The 60-month limitation, but may incorporate aspects of culture and tradition into the requirements for aid. Economist Elizabeth Zahrt Geib stressed the potential for tribes to define work for purposes of welfare distribution to include traditional tasks and arts more in line with native lifestyles before the reservation system was created. The Tanana Chiefs Conference of Alaska and the Lac du Flambeau Bank of Lake Superior Chippewa of Wisconsin have already included hunting and fishing as work activities for purposes of welfare distribution. In addition, locally controlled welfare programs usually mean much easier application processes and increased accessibility to offices, allowing

3724-519: The BIA [Bureau of Indian Affairs], as well as with Indian property rights and economic conditions." The team conducted seven months of field work to gather its information. It conducted field work in 23 states, selected based on a report by the Bureau of Indian Affairs that arranged states in order of number of Native American inhabitants. The report showed 23 states having more than 1,000 Native American inhabitants,

3822-403: The BIA supported no long-term development on reservations. The report also states: "Little attempt has been made to formulate a broad constructive program for the service as a whole, extending over a long term of years, and having for its goal the general improvement of economic conditions." The Meriam Report emphasized the need for education but it suggested that such education should be based on

3920-512: The Dawes act attempted to eliminate native lifeways, cultures, and communities. Political leaders asserted that forcing American Indians to hold private property would assimilate them into American culture. To facilitate assimilation, they were given food, housing, and clothing. The explicit aim of these policies were to forcibly eliminate traditional cultures, and "kill the Indian, save the man". During this era, Native American children were removed from

4018-770: The Federal government to mount EJ claims with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in several cases to successfully legally push back against pollution and environmental degradation on their lands . However, many Native activists argue that a seat at the table "does not ensure a comparable serving of the environmental protection pie" Indian gaming casinos are often considered a potential solution to reservation poverty. Because reservations are exempt from many federal and state regulations, including those prohibiting gambling , tribes are able to operate commercial casinos on reservations. These casinos can provide jobs on

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4116-597: The Indian Reorganization Act, the Act was actually largely attributed to John Collier who had been appointed by Roosevelt as Commissioner for Indian Affairs. The new Act ended allotment and permitted tribes to organize their own governments and to incorporate their trust lands communally. United States Department of the Interior The United States Department of the Interior ( DOI )

4214-477: The Indian schools." Additionally, Charles J. Rhoads and J. Henry Scattergood (Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs, appointed by Hoover), accomplished or initiated many of the recommendations of the Meriam Report. President Hoover appointed Rhoads to put together a reform package which included the closure of unpopular reservation boarding schools and improved medical facilities. However, nothing

4312-742: The Interior and Treasury (such as the Minerals Management Service), in what has been a 15-year-old lawsuit. Some American Indian nations have also sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US. In 2010 Congress passed the Claims Settlement Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-291), which provided $ 3.4 billion for the settlement of the Cobell v. Salazar class-action trust case and four American Indian water rights cases. On March 16, 2021, Deb Haaland , serving at that time as

4410-597: The Interior, at Fall's behest. Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt faced criticism for his alleged hostility to environmentalism, for his support of the development and use of federal lands by foresting, ranching, and other commercial interests, and for banning the Beach Boys from playing a 1983 Independence Day concert on the National Mall out of concerns of attracting "an undesirable element". His 1983 resignation

4508-580: The National Law School and George Washington University , and a Ph.D. from the Brookings Institution . He worked for several government bureaus both before and after his work on the Indian Survey, including the bureaus of Census and Children's Welfare . In 1926, Interior Secretary Hubert Work chose Meriam to head a survey team to investigate Indian Affairs because of his experience with

4606-519: The United States today. As of 2008, almost a third of Native Americans in the United States live on reservations, totaling approximately 700,000 individuals. About half of all Native Americans living on reservations are concentrated on the ten largest reservations. Reservations vary drastically in their size, population, political economy, culture and traditions. Despite such variation, all reservations share similar histories of colonization, and face similar contemporary challenges. One of these challenges

4704-553: The United States. On the Gila River Reservation in Arizona , which has one of the lowest educational attainment levels in the country, barely one third of adults possess this credential. On reservations, more individuals have less than a ninth grade education than have a college diploma. More than 10 percent lack any high school education. It is not uncommon on reservations in California and New Mexico to have more than half

4802-447: The [Indian Health] Service, despite a few exceptions, must generally be characterized as lacking in personnel, equipment, management, and design." The government, although it had numerous on- and off-reservation health care institutions, did not provide sufficient care for Indian patients. The report noted, "the most important single item affecting health is probably the food supply." A further setback facing healthcare on Indian reservations

4900-450: The amount currently made available. Across the country, individuals and organizations both on and off reservations are fighting to reduce the poverty discussed above. Most efforts have focused on gaming casinos, tribal economic entrepreneurship, and cultural revival. Reservations in relatively close proximity to urban areas have become sites for waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs), adding environmental degradation to

4998-438: The assimilationist policies of Indian education, dependent on such boarding schools, continued for another 40 years. The schools reached their peak student enrollment of 60,000 in the 1970s. The Meriam Report can be seen to have affected several aspects of government policy: "Acting upon the emergency recommendations of the Meriam Report, President Hoover requested additional funds to supply adequate food and clothing for pupils in

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5096-422: The capital required to raise cattle . Instead, they lease the land to non-native ranchers for minimal amounts. As the reservation residents do not have alternative ways of making money on the reservation, ranchers can drive the lease rates down to mere dollars a year. The boarding school system had the doubly negative effect of inadequately educating a generation of reservation youth while simultaneously fostering

5194-476: The closest places to purchase food only consist of processed foods, such as gas stations or quick marts. People are only able to access food that has high sugar and sodium as well as saturated fats, these options only lead to a higher risk of obesity, heart disease and diabetes. Which is already rampant in Native American communities. Furthermore, almost a quarter of reservation households do not have access to

5292-487: The communal Indian land by allocating allotments to individual Indian households, encouraging families to undertake subsistence farming, the model of European-American culture. The immediate result of the report's attack on [land] allotment was a decline in the issuance of allotted lands. In the four fiscal years prior to the initiation of the study, 1922–1926, approximately 10,000 Native Americans were allotted over 3 million acres from their Reservations. In comparison, during

5390-622: The data used to reform American Indian policy through new legislation: the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. It strongly influenced succeeding policies in land allotment, education, and health care. The report found generally that the federal government was failing at its goals of protecting Native Americans, their land, and their resources, both personal and cultural. Lewis Meriam was born in Salem, Massachusetts , in 1883. He received degrees in English and government from Harvard University , law degrees from

5488-428: The department. These superseded the previous 49 regions used across 8 agencies. Reservation poverty Reservations in the United States, known as Indian reservations , are sovereign Native American territories that are managed by a tribal government in cooperation with the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs , a branch of the Department of the Interior , located in Washington, DC . There are 334 reservations in

5586-588: The domestic concerns the department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other departments. For example, the Department of Interior was responsible for water pollution control prior to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency . Other agencies became separate departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture , which later became the Department of Agriculture . However, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain

5684-543: The fiscal years 1929-1932, the 4 years immediately following the publication of 'The Problem of Indian Administration,' a little over 2,800 Native Americans were allotted less than 500,000 acres. Within five years of the Report, the policy of allotment was abandoned altogether. On June 18, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Indian Reorganization Act into law. Although the Meriam report had condemned allotment and affected

5782-475: The home and sent to boarding schools , where they were given Western clothes, food, and education. They were allowed little to no communication with families, and siblings were often separated. Boarding school students were prohibited from practicing tribal traditional lifeways and from speaking indigenous languages . In several instances when students were caught maintaining Native culture or language, students were physically abused. Forced assimilation took away

5880-440: The integration of Indian children into the majority culture, rather than educating Indian children in separate institutions, as previous education policies had stressed. The first line in the education section states, "The most fundamental need in Indian education is a change in point of view." The report was particularly critical of Indian boarding schools: "The survey staff finds itself obligated to say frankly and unequivocally that

5978-481: The lack of potential investors and overall dearth of economic activity. As of 2008, there were only six banks and seven credit unions operated by American Indians on reservations. Without formal financial institutions, many reservation residents are unable to save or invest what income they do have, and do not have access to loans for homes, cars, or businesses. Due to the lack of commercial establishments, non-cash transactions are common on some reservations. Although

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6076-429: The land on which reservations were created tended to be barren, resource deficient land, there was little chance of developing economically viable agricultural enterprises. Prohibition of tribal traditional lifeways combined with the remote locations of the reservations created very few opportunities for economic solvency within reservations and for very few opportunities for economic interaction with white settlements. In

6174-923: The lands Native people were "allowed" to inhabit. This effort started under the presidency of Andrew Jackson with the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which created the first reservations. As forced relocation progressed, many tribes lost access to tribal traditional lifeways, which centered around community living and hunting and gathering. During this violent period, tribes were often forced to move to geographic areas unfamiliar to them, most commonly from Eastern states to Western states. Reservations were created on lands that were deemed worthless to white settlers. Reservations were placed on lands considered resource deficient, unfit for agriculture or cultivation, and which were isolated from urban centers and transportation networks. Mainstream political discourse of this era favored removing tribes from areas populated by or desirable to

6272-458: The landscape of poverty. Living in proximity to high levels of pollution or industrial facilities has been linked to serious short-term and long-term health impacts. In what is perhaps the most negative use of Native American lands, the federal government has used reservations for nuclear testing and nuclear waste disposal. Uranium mining , uranium conversion and enrichment, and nuclear weapons testing have all occurred on reservation lands in

6370-615: The last half-century, the principle guiding federal Native American policy became self-determination . The logic of this principle is to let tribes set their own policies, set their own visions, and determine their own futures. It was largely inspired by American Indian activists since the 1970s. Self-determination recognizes reservations as sovereign nations within US boundaries, meaning they are able to make and enforce their own laws and regulations, are independent from states' laws and regulations, and must abide by most federal laws. Almost all boarding schools were eliminated and replaced with

6468-425: The livelihoods of many Native people, without providing anything in its place. Tribal members were prohibited from making a living through hunting, fishing, and arts. Furthermore, native people who provided educational, religious, medical, and culinary services to their communities were replaced with non-native, government and Church-sponsored individuals. In the early twentieth century, tribes were further hindered by

6566-504: The lowest per capita incomes in the country are found on reservations. Allen, South Dakota , on the Pine Ridge Reservation, has a low per capita income in the country, at $ 1,539 per year. Overall, the per capita income of American Indians on Reservations is half that of all Americans. The median income on reservations is $ 14,097, compared to $ 41,994 nationally. Figures from the 2000 census. The deep poverty rate of

6664-523: The national average. In addition, a higher portion of reservation residents are eligible for Supplemental Security Income. On average, ten percent of the population on the largest reservations are eligible for SSI benefits, compared with eight percent of all Americans. The percentage of reservation residents eligible for social security benefits is comparable to that of the national population. Relatively little current, valid data exists about today's reservations. Annual demographic surveys generally do not have

6762-400: The neighborhood effects of concentrated poverty. Isolation tends to lead to depression and poverty. With depression and isolation afflicting so many Native people, it is not surprising to see the rates for suicide and homicide correlating to the populations in poverty. The Indian Health Service found that in areas with high poverty rates, the percentage increases for suicide and homicide cases,

6860-471: The nineteenth and twentieth centuries that included provisions that the government would provide food and shelter for tribal members. Each reservation has a commodities office, from which monthly food supplies are given out. Unfortunately, this food tends to be nonperishable, heavy on simple starches, and nutritionally deficient, thus contributing to high rates of obesity and diabetes on reservations. Public assistance does not effectively reduce poverty on

6958-639: The number exceeds 75 percent. Out of the adult population without jobs, unemployment rates only include those who are both able to work and are actively looking for work. On reservations, a much larger portion is out of the labor force entirely, meaning they either are unable to work or are not actively looking for employment. Because of the severity of the lack of employment opportunities, many residents are not actively seeking work. People tend to hear of job opportunities through informal networks, rather than through conventional postings and applications. As such, an individual might be desiring employment, but not take

7056-557: The numbers decrease with a lower percentage of poverty. The rate of violent crime on reservations is more than twice the national average. Although not heavily studied, gang violence is a problem on the Navajo and Pine Ridge Reservations. The extent to such activity on other reservations is a topic for future inquiry, although almost one fourth of a national sample of reservation residents report gang activity in their communities. The use of drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes on reservations

7154-529: The past century. After creating the Nevada Test Site on Western Shoshone lands in Nevada, the federal government tested over one thousand atomic weapons on Western Shoshone land between the 1950-90s. The Western Shoshone people call themselves the "most bombed nation on the planet." Similar activities happened on Paiute Shoshone lands as well. For Native American nations, environmental justice on reservations

7252-439: The past several decades, EJ communities, researchers and activists have used varied methodology to measure the disparate siting and long-term health effects of locally unwanted land uses, waste treatment facilities, and other noxious point sources of pollution in relation to communities of color and other socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. Native governments on reservations have used their legal "Treatment as State" status with

7350-414: The people living with food insecurities. This means that the reservations are suffering from low-income and low access to food. Low access is described as 33% or more of the population living in rural areas where stores providing affordable and healthy foods are more than 10 miles away from their homes. Another issue we see with this trend is that certain diseases are linked with food insecurities. If some of

7448-483: The population with less than a ninth grade education. In North Dakota , Nevada , California , New Mexico , South Dakota , Utah , Colorado , and Wyoming , many reservations have over three quarters of their population without high school degrees. This is compared to 12 percent nationwide. There are few commercial banks or lending institutions located on reservations. Reservations are generally seen as very high-risk areas to place financial institutions, because of

7546-456: The proactive steps needed to be defined as "looking for work." Some researchers have suggested that asking reservation residents if they seek job opportunities when they occur would be a more accurate measure of unemployment than asking if they had applied for work recently. Figures from the 2000 census. There are very few jobs available on the reservation. Schools are the biggest employer, followed by various public service positions with

7644-432: The provisions for the care of the Indian children in boarding schools are grossly inadequate." The survey team concluded that the boarding schools provided poor diet, were overcrowded, did not provide sufficient medical services, were supported by student labor, and relied on a uniform curriculum rather than raising teacher standards. While the report drew attention to the gross deficiencies of Indian boarding school education,

7742-589: The request of the Secretary of the Interior , the Meriam Commission was charged with investigating the affairs of Indians in the United States. To maintain unbiased standards for the survey, it was financed by the Rockefeller Foundation , not by any government agency or agent. "The investigation would cover nearly all reservations and would deal with educational, industrial, social, and medical activities of

7840-679: The reservation, attract tourists, and bring in money for tribes to fund education, health, and social service programs. The Ojibwe of Minnesota have built two schools, the Choctaw of Oklahoma have built a new hospital, and the Pueblo of New Mexico have rebuilt their water system, all using casino profits. Other tribes fund child and elder care programs, health services, fire and police protection, and housing development with gambling earnings. Casinos also provide much-needed job opportunities on reservations. In 1989, average levels of unemployment on reservations

7938-640: The reservation, or from other reservations, because of required levels of training or experience. Rural areas tend to lack jobs with promotion opportunities, and rural residents often must migrate to cities for employment and advancement opportunity. However, reservation residents rarely are able to meet the educational and requirements of jobs off the reservation, and in addition, often encounter discrimination from employers who are hesitant to hire reservation natives. The lack of formally educated, experienced workers and entrepreneurs also opens reservations up to exploitation from outside firms looking to capitalize on

8036-510: The reservation, who keep a great majority of the profits. Although the tribe usually receives a nominal amount of profits, they lose the rights to their land and the potential for truly sovereign development. The rule of native lands by non-natives off the reservation is particularly prevalent on many large reservations in the Midwest and Rocky Mountain regions. Although the land provides opportunity for ranching , few reservation residents possess

8134-458: The reservation. Although it may keep many families from being completely unable to survive, it does not build economies, reinstitute cultural institutions, or create a source of pride for reservation residents. The percent of reservation residents eligible for government aid tends to be much higher than that of the general population. On the ten largest reservations, the percent of residents receiving cash assistance ranges from four to fifteen times

8232-448: The resources of reservation land. Although this land is often incredibly isolated geographically and absent of natural resources or productive potential, some areas do hold potential for development. Such development, though, requires a substantial amount be invested at the onset to build necessary infrastructure. Tribes are at a disadvantage, not having the resources or specialists needed. As such, they contract development out to firms off

8330-562: The responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall was implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal of 1921. He was convicted of bribery in 1929, and served one year in prison, for his part in the controversy. A major factor in the scandal was a transfer of certain oil leases from the jurisdiction of the Department of the Navy to that of the Department of

8428-535: The roads serving these areas are substandard. Many key roads were never designed or built for vehicular traffic. According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, only 15% of the nearly 28,000 miles of reservation roads are in acceptable conditions and pass current safety regulations. A food desert is described as a low-income area with a substantial number of people who do not have access to affordable and healthy food options. 23% of Natives living on reservations are food insecure, with some reservations having as much as 50% of

8526-577: The schools and calls for accountability and measures to address the ongoing impact on Native American families and communities to include working closely with tribal nations on the identification and repatriation of the remains. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with American Indians, while others are handled by the Office of Special Trustee. The current acting assistant secretary for Indian affairs

8624-538: The stage for persistent poverty was set. Self-determination represented an important ideological shift in government policy, but did not change conditions of poverty and limited opportunities. The history of the reservation system has resulted in concentrated poverty . Regardless of urbanicity, areas of concentrated poverty tend to have higher crime rates , underperforming schools, poor housing, poor health conditions, limited private services, and few job opportunities. In addition, residents of these areas must contend with

8722-497: The survey team included extensive recommendations for the correction of deficiencies, notably in health, education, and government cooperation for legal and social issues. The report states, "the health of the Indians compared with that of the general population is bad." In its section on health care services provided by the government to Native Americans, the report states: "The hospitals, salutatorian, and sanatorium schools maintained by

8820-643: The technical study of government operations, as well as his expertise in government administration. Meriam spent three years working on this project, which became known as the "Meriam Commission" or the "Meriam Report". His involvement in Indian affairs ended in 1936 because of his skepticism of the New Deal . In 1946 he was appointed as Vice President of the Brookings Institution. He died in Kensington, Maryland , on October 30, 1972. Meriam had difficulty choosing

8918-453: The three year investigation produced the first report in May 2022 and the second and final volume in June 2024. The final report details the severe trauma and cultural disruption inflicted on Native American communities through these schools, which operated from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. It highlights the systemic abuse and neglect endured by students, finding 973 children died at

9016-471: The top three being Oklahoma, Arizona, and South Dakota. The team visited a total of 95 reservations, agencies, hospitals, and schools. At least one member of the survey team visited each of these 95 locations; often members of the team were forced to work independently in order to complete the required work in the shortest possible amount of time. "[Interior Secretary] Work insisted that the survey be completed within one year, so that he might effect changes before

9114-493: The white population began moving West, into the land formerly assigned to tribes, government policy underwent a transformation. In 1887, the Dawes Act was passed. The Dawes Act represented a shift in federal policy towards American Indians. This legislation divided tribal lands into individual parcels to be assigned to individual tribal members. The net result was more land available for non-native settlers, and less land held by American Indians. Policies starting with and following

9212-546: The white population. During the nineteenth century, many Native American nations resisted forced migration by mounting upheavals which often turned bloody. Known as the American Indian Wars , these battles between American settlers or the United States government and Native Americans culminated in the Massacre at Wounded Knee of 1890, during which US military forces killed more than 150 Lakota men, women, and children. As

9310-464: Was a general lack of knowledge of the Indian languages by healthcare providers. The report concluded that "The income of the typical Indian family is low and the earned income extremely low." The report addressed the poverty thought to have resulted from the individual allotment policy of the Dawes Act. It found: "In justice to the Indians it should be said that many of them are living on lands from which

9408-446: Was above 30 percent. In the next decade, that rate dropped to 13 percent on reservations with casinos, while remaining stagnant on reservations without casinos. Casinos' impact on overall economic conditions, however, is limited. Through the 1990s, the number of reservation residents eligible for public assistance programs increased across most reservations. Although the rate of increase was slightly less on reservations that had casinos,

9506-482: Was immediately done to change the allotted land situation, which caused disappointment among Native Americans. They would have to wait until 1934 for the policy of allotment to come to an end. The most significant and influential effect of the Meriam Report was its strong criticism of the Dawes Act and analysis of its failings. Also known as the General Allotment Act, the Dawes Act of 1887 had sought to break up

9604-505: Was prompted by a speech in which he said about his staff: "I have a black, a woman, two Jews and a cripple. And we have talent." Under the Administration of President George W. Bush , the Interior Department's maintenance backlog climbed from $ 5 billion to $ 8.7 billion, despite Bush's campaign pledges to eliminate it completely. Of the agency under Bush's leadership, Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney has cited

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