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119-554: The island is named for the formerly separate islands of Nebbi and Saleh . The island was named after the Shi'ite holy man, Salih, who received the title "Nabih Saleh" due to his asceticism and was buried on the island, where his tomb, the Shrine of Nabih Saleh , still stands. This island originally, like Sitra , was covered with farms and date palm groves , but now it has been denuded by mass deforestation . In 2016 renovation works began on

238-537: A messianic figure , the hidden and last Imam known as "the Mahdi ", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of Twelver Shīʿīsm , the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam. Some Shīʿa subsects , such as

357-665: A bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque. ( See : Anti-Shi'ism ). Shia orthodoxy, particularly in Twelver Shi'ism , has considered non-Muslims as agents of impurity ( Najāsat) . This categorization sometimes extends to kitābῑ , individuals belonging to the People of the Book , with Jews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars. Armenians in Iran , who have historically played

476-541: A crucial role in the Iranian economy , received relatively more lenient treatment. Shi'ite theologians and mujtahids (jurists), such as Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisῑ , held that Jews' impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors. Ayatollah Khomeini , Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989, asserted that every part of an unbeliever's body, including hair, nails, and bodily secretions,

595-561: A faction within the Turkish Armed Forces with connections to the Gülen movement, citing an erosion in secularism. There is an administration called "Presidency of Religious Affairs" or Diyanet manages 77,500 mosques. This state agency, established by Atatürk (1924), finance only Sunni Muslim worship Other religions must ensure a financially self-sustaining running and they face administrative obstacles during operation. The Diyanet

714-516: A headscarf under their police caps. This act was pushed by President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's Islamist-rooted Justice and Development Party (AKP) that have been pushing for relaxed restrictions on the hijab. The vast majority of the present-day Turkish people are Muslim and the Sunni Islam is the most populous Islamic sect, comprising about 90% of the Muslims in the country. The most popular school of law

833-522: A new phenomenon, İslamcı Aydın (the Islamist intellectual), unaffiliated with the traditional Sufi orders, emerged during the 1980s. Prolific and popular writers such as Ali Bulaç , Rasim Özdenören , and İsmet Özel drew upon their knowledge of Western philosophy, Marxist sociology, and radical Islamist political theory to advocate for a modern Islamic perspective that does not hesitate to criticize societal issues while simultaneously remaining faithful to

952-584: A number of changes in the Muslim world : With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Iran—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges ( qāḍī )—became much weaker. This gave the sharīʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time. Shia Islam

1071-523: A polarization of the entire country, which became especially evident in the 1980s, as a new generation of religiously motivated local leaders emerged to challenge the dominance of the secularized political elite. By 1994, slogans promising that a return to Islam would cure economic ills and solve the problems of bureaucratic inefficiencies had enough general appeal to enable avowed religious candidates to win mayoral elections in Istanbul and Ankara . Following

1190-466: A political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm. According to Shīʿa Muslim theologians , infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility

1309-592: A result of these policies, the Turkish Republic was judged negatively by some sections of the Muslim world. The common expectation was that these policies of the 1920s and 1930s would diminish the role of religion in public, which, however, did not occur. As early as 1925, religious grievances were one of the principal causes of the Şeyh Sait rebellion , an uprising in southeastern Turkey that may have claimed as many as 30,000 lives before being suppressed. Although Turkey

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1428-457: A speech at Ghadir Khumm . The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his mawla , has ʿAlī as his mawla ". Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy". Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that

1547-520: A symbol of the Islamic traditionalism they rejected. Militant secularists persuaded the Higher Education Council to issue a regulation in 1987 forbidding female university students to cover their heads in class. Protests by thousands of religious students and some university professors forced several universities to waive enforcement of the dress code. The issue continued to be seriously divisive in

1666-437: Is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims, even evaluating

1785-455: Is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time . Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/ Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim , and also believe that a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him. Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth. Shīʿa Muslims believe that

1904-512: Is an official state institution established in 1924 and works to provide Quranic education for children, as well as drafting weekly sermons delivered to approximately 85,000 different mosques. Furthermore, the Diyanet employs all of the imams in Turkey. When collecting tax, all Turkish citizens are equal. The tax rate is not based on religion. However, through the Diyanet, Turkish citizens are not equal in

2023-399: Is anecdotal evidence of a notable number of Turkish students from religious high schools admitting their loss of faith in Islamic beliefs, which has caused substantial amount of discussion among politicians and religious clerics. More recently in 2016, Turkey approved hijab as the part of the official police uniform . For the first time, female officers will be able to cover their heads with

2142-569: Is based on the Shīʿīte interpretation of the verse of purification . Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness. It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin , but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin. They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by

2261-655: Is being frequently used to represent all the Shi'a Muslim sects in Turkish language . Furthermore, the term Kızılbaş in the history was used pejoratively for all Shi'ites in Anatolia . Estimates for Alevi population vary from less than 4 million to more than 12 million according to different sources. It's hard to make a realistic estimate for their population since the Turkish government has never asked about religious denominations in conducted censuses. Other reasons for this are

2380-486: Is commemorated on the Day of Ashura , occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, including Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs , became Imamis . Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad . Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret

2499-691: Is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as " the Twelve Imams ". Twelver Shia are otherwise known as Imami or Jaʿfari ; the latter term derives from Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam , who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence. Twelver Shia constitute the majority of the population in Iran (90%), Azerbaijan (85%), Bahrain (70%), Iraq (65%), and Lebanon (65% of Muslims). Shia Islam in Turkey Islam

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2618-427: Is impure. However, the current leader of Iran, ʿAlī Khameneʾī , stated in a fatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure, and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity. The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī, and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra (8th century CE). The first Shia governments and societies were established by

2737-510: Is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God'), but in addition to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims add the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah ( Arabic : علي ولي الله , lit.   'Ali is the guardian of God'). The basis for the Shīʿīte belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the Wali of God is derived from the Qur'anic verse 5:55 . This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies

2856-573: Is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen , to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī

2975-628: Is the Hanafite madh'hab of Sunni Islam . The Hanafi madhhab was the official school of Islamic jurisprudence espoused by the Ottoman Empire and a 2013 survey conducted by the Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs indicates that 77.5% of Turkish Muslims identify themselves as Hanafis . Another common Sunni jurisprudence, Shafi'i is the dominant one in Turkish Kurdistan . Although

3094-463: Is the second largest branch of Islam . It is estimated that either 10–20% or 10–13% of the global Muslim population are Shias. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009. As of 1985, Shia Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia , although the total number is difficult to estimate. Shia Muslims form a distinct majority of the population in three countries of

3213-527: Is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam. Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with the other prophets and messengers , possessed ismah . Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fāṭimah , daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaydī Shīʿas , who do not attribute ismah to the Imams. Though initially beginning as

3332-665: Is the most practiced religion in Turkey . Most Turkish Sunni Muslims belong to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. The established presence of Islam in the region that now constitutes modern Turkey dates back to the later half of the 11th century, when the Seljuks started expanding into eastern Anatolia . While records count the number of Muslims as 99.8%, this is likely to be an overestimation; most surveys estimate lower numbers at around 94%. The most popular school of thought ( maddhab ) being

3451-642: Is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought. Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat (leadership), similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood. Imam Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever

3570-450: Is the second-largest branch of Islam . It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE) as his successor ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized :  khalīfa ) as Imam ( امام , 'spiritual and political leader'), most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm , but that after Muhammad's death, Ali was prevented from succeeding as leader of

3689-478: The 1980 coup , the military, although secular in orientation, viewed religion as an effective means to counter socialist ideas and thus authorized the construction of 90 more İmam Hatip high schools. During the 1970s and 1980s, Islam experienced political rehabilitation due to center-right secular leaders perceiving religion as a potential bulwark in their ideological struggle with center-left secular leaders. A small advocacy group that became extremely influential

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3808-529: The Alawites , who altogether constitutes nearly one tenth of the whole population of the country. An estimate for the Turkish Alevi population varies from 3.5 million to 11 million. However it's so hard to estimate a realistic number for Shia population in Turkey since the country doesn't conduct ethnic or religious censuses. Unlike the common usage of the term " Shi'a " in other languages, Aleviler instead

3927-582: The Battle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues with Muawiyah , the governor of Damascus. ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming the Kharijis , a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer ( sujud ). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to

4046-406: The Hanafi school of Sunni Islam (about 90% of overall Muslim denominations). The remaining Muslim sects , forming about 9% of the Muslim population, consist of Alevis , Ja'faris (representing 1% ) and Alawites (with an estimated population of around 500,000 to 1 million, or about 1% ). There is also a minority of Sufi and non-denominational Muslims . During the Muslim conquests of

4165-1135: The Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya , Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra , the Sahla Mosque , the Great Mosque of Kufa , the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa . Most of the Shīʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925. In 2006,

4284-576: The Kadiri , Mevlevi , Nakşibendi , Khālidiyyā and Al-Ṭarīqah al-Tijāniyyah reemerge, but new movements were formed, including the Nur Cemaati , Gülen movement , Sülaymānīyyā , Community of İskenderpaşa and İsmailağa . The Tijāni became especially militant in confronting the state, damaging monuments to Atatürk to symbolize their opposition to his policy of secularization. This was, however, an isolated incident and only involved one particular Sheikh of

4403-665: The Maturidi and Ash'ari schools of Islamic theology (which apply Ilm al-Kalam or rational thought to understand the Quran and the hadith ) have been the dominant creeds in Turkey due to their widespread acceptance and propagation since the beginning of the Ottoman Empire , the Athari (literalist) creed of the Salafi movement has seen increasing acceptance. Compared to the Hanbali school of Islam,

4522-405: The Muslim community . Later events such as Husayn's martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) further influenced the development of Shia Islam, contributing to the formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory. Shia Islam is followed by 10–15% of all Muslims. Although there are many Shia subsects in the Muslim world, Twelver Shi'ism is by far

4641-559: The Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , and Azerbaijan . Shia Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East . Estimates have placed the proportion of Shia Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population, 30–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population), over 20% in Turkey , 5–20% of

4760-624: The True Path Party while the Işıkçılar and Enver Ören had openly supported the Motherland Party since the mid-1980s. The demand for restoration of religious education in public schools began in the late 1940s. The government initially responded by authorizing religious instruction in state schools for those students whose parents requested it. Under the rule of the Democrat Party during

4879-418: The Zaydī Shīʿas and Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs , do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return. Twelver Shīʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and 12th Shīʿīte Imam , Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi ,

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4998-435: The angels ( Arabic : ملائِكة , romanized :  malāʾikah ) to the prophets ( Arabic : أنبياء , romanized :  anbiyāʼ ) and the messengers ( Arabic : رُسل , romanized :  rusul ). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters. Shi'a Muslims regard ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over

5117-605: The de facto rulers. In 1068, Alp Arslan and allied Turkoman tribes recaptured many Abbasid lands and even invaded Byzantine regions, pushing further into eastern and central Anatolia after a major victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The disintegration of the Seljuk dynasty resulted in the rise of subsequent, smaller, rival Turkic kingdoms such as the Danishmends , the Sultanate of Rum , and various Atabegs who contested

5236-694: The " Six Arrows " of Atatürk's program for remaking Turkey. Whereas Islam had formed the identity of Muslims within the Ottoman Empire, secularism was seen as molding the new Turkish nation and its citizens. In 1922, the new nationalist regime abolished the Ottoman sultanate, as well as the caliphate in 1924 - the religious office that Ottoman sultans had held for four centuries. Thus, for the first time in Islamic history, no ruler claimed spiritual leadership of Islam. Atatürk and his associates abolished certain religious practices and institutions and generally questioned

5355-486: The 1950s, religious education was made compulsory in secondary schools unless parents made a specific request to have their children excused. Religious education was made compulsory for all primary and secondary school children in 1982. The reintroduction of religion into the school curriculum raised the question of religious higher education. The seculars believed that Islam could be "reformed" if future leaders were trained in state-controlled seminaries. To further this goal,

5474-567: The 7th and early 8th centuries, Arab armies established the Islamic Empire . The Umayyad Caliphate continued the spread of Islam . The Islamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad . The later period saw initial expansion and the capture of Crete (840). The Abbasids soon shifted their attention towards

5593-722: The East. During the later fragmentation of the Abbasid rule and the rise of their Shiite rivals the Fatimids and Buyids , a resurgent Byzantium recaptured Crete and Cilicia in 961, Cyprus in 965, and pushed into the Levant by 975. The Byzantines successfully contested with the Fatimids for influence in the region until the arrival of the Seljuk Turks who first allied with the Abbasids and then ruled as

5712-422: The Hanafi school of Islam takes a much more liberal take on the religion, allowing for a more lenient interpretation of religious law. Twelver branch of Shia Islam Muslim population of Turkey is composed of Ja'fari aqidah and fiqh , Batiniyya - Sufism aqidah of Maymūn’al-Qāddāhī fiqh of the Alevīs, and Cillī aqidah of Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh of

5831-446: The Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind. In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population. A major turning point in the history of Shia Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia . This caused

5950-404: The Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable." Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of Moses , the ring of Solomon , son of David , and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him

6069-416: The Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah. This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shia–Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, hadith literature (accounts of

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6188-425: The Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid , and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance ( bay'ah ) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There

6307-483: The Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions ( صحابة , ṣaḥāba ) at Saqifah . This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam , whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr , who was appointed caliph by a group of Muhammad's other companions at Saqifah, to be the first Rashidun ('rightful') caliph after Muhammad (632–634 CE). Shia Muslims' belief that Ali

6426-403: The Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 show: "Indeed, Allah chose Adam , Noah , the family of Abraham , and the family of ’Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing." Shīʿa Islam encompasses various denominations and subgroups , all bound by the belief that the leader of the Muslim community ( Ummah ) should hail from Ahl al-Bayt ,

6545-510: The Safavids eventually conquered Iran, spread their beliefs, and became proponents of orthodox Twelver Shi'a Islam . The conquest of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople (modern day Istanbul ) in 1453 enabled the Ottomans to consolidate their empire in Anatolia and Thrace . The Ottomans later revived the title of caliph during the reign of Selim I . Despite the absence of a formal institutional structure, Sunni religious functionaries continued to play an important political role. In theory,

6664-552: The Shīʿīte emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad's family and lineage . The three clauses of the Shīʿīte version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥīd ( Arabic : تَوْحِيد , lit.   'oneness of God'), Nubuwwah ( Arabic : نبوة , lit.   'prophethood'), and Imamah ( Arabic : إمامة , lit.   'Imamate or leadership'). Ismah ( Arabic : عِصْمَة , romanized :  'Iṣmah or 'Isma , lit.   'protection')

6783-414: The Turkish word Tanrı for the Arabic word Allah , and incorporating Turkish into daily calls to prayer. These changes in devotional practices caused widespread criticism among Muslims, which led to a return to the Arabic version of the call to prayer in 1950, after the opposition party DP won the elections. Of longer-lasting effect were the regime's measures of prohibiting religious education, restricting

6902-413: The abolition of the caliphate, new laws mandated the abolition of the office of Şeyhülislam and the religious hierarchy , the closing and confiscation of Sufi lodges, meeting places, and monasteries and the outlawing of their rituals and meetings, the establishment of government control over vakıfs which had been inalienable under Sharia , the replacement of sharia with adapted European legal codes;

7021-430: The armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge ( Imamat ). According to Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar , God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there

7140-503: The authority of hadith , known as Quranists , Quraniyoon, or Ahl al-Quran, are also present in Turkey. In Turkey , Quranist ideas became particularly noticeable, with portions of the youth either leaving Islam or converting to Quranism. There has been significant Quranist scholarship in Turkey, with there being even Quranist theology professors in significant universities, including scholars like Yaşar Nuri Öztürk and Caner Taslaman . Some believe that there are secret Quranists even in

7259-401: The building of new mosques , and transferring existing mosques to secular purposes - most notably the Hagia Sophia (Justinian's sixth-century Christian basilica , which had been converted into a mosque by Mehmet II ), which was turned into a museum in 1935. Muftis and imams were appointed by the government, and religious instruction was taken over by the Ministry of National Education . As

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7378-555: The caliphate. Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions : The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī , e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt

7497-442: The claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect. Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shia Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha' , as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran . The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances. Shia Muslims celebrate

7616-453: The closing of religious schools; the abandonment of the Islamic calendar in favor of the Gregorian calendar used in the West, and restrictions on public attire that had religious associations, with the fez outlawed for men and the veil discouraged for women. Atatürk and his colleagues also attempted to "turkify" Islam through official encouragement of practices such as the usage of Turkish rather than Arabic at devotions, substituting

7735-408: The codified system of sharia regulated all aspects of everyday life, at least for Muslim subjects of the empire. The head of the judiciary ranked directly below the sultan, and was second in power only to the grand vizier . Early in the Ottoman period, the office of grand mufti of Istanbul evolved into that of Şeyhülislam (shaykh, or "leader of Islam"), which had ultimate jurisdiction over all

7854-501: The colonial period, such as the Khoja . Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population . The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers , followed by the Zaydīs and the Ismāʿīlīs . Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims follow

7973-402: The control of the region during the Crusades and incrementally expanded across Anatolia until the rise of the Ottoman Empire . Beginning in the 12th century, new waves of Turkic migrants arrived, many of whom belonging to Sufi orders. Some of these migrants later went on to incorporate heterodox beliefs. One Sufi order that appealed to Turks in Anatolia was the Safaviyya , an order that

8092-432: The country and receive no state funding for their mosques and imams as the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) is exclusively Sunni. The majority of the Alawite community in Turkey with an estimated population of around 1 million lives in the Province of Hatay , where they nearly represent half of the total population, primarily in the districts of Arsuz , Defne and Samandağ , where Alawites constitute

8211-539: The country. Folk Islam has continued to embrace such practices although the veneration of saints officially has been discouraged since the 1930s. Plaques posted in various sanctuaries forbid the lighting of candles, the offering of votive objects, and related devotional activities in these places. Modern day Sufi shaykhs with large adherents in Turkey include Shaykh Mehmet Efendi (residing in Istanbul) and Mawlana Sheikh Nazim Al-Haqqani who resided in Lefka , North Cyprus, until his death in May, 2014. Those who do not accept

8330-458: The courts in the empire and consequently exercised authority over the interpretation and application of sharia. Legal opinions pronounced by the Şeyhülislam were considered definitive interpretations. The secularization of Turkey started during the last years of the Ottoman Empire and was a prominent feature of Atatürk's reforms . Under his leadership, the caliphate was abolished, and the secular power of religious authorities and functionaries

8449-418: The divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance. In Shia Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid

8568-461: The divine law and its esoteric meaning . The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree ( nass ) through Muhammad. According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in

8687-518: The end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and Fatima 's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during the First Fitna from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī

8806-401: The entire Muslim community in justice, but also in interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. ʿAlī is regarded as a " perfect man " ( Arabic : الإنسان الكامل , romanized :  al-insan al-kamil ) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿīte perspective. The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning

8925-458: The ethical values and spiritual dimensions of religion. Islamist intellectuals are harshly critical of Turkey's secular intellectuals, whom they fault for trying to do in Turkey what Western intellectuals did in Europe: substitute worldly materialism , in its capitalist or socialist version, for religious values. On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted in Turkey against state institutions by

9044-642: The family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world . Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor and the first caliph ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized :  khalifa ) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command on several instances, but most notably at Eid Al Ghadir . Additionally, ʿAlī

9163-583: The following annual holidays: After Mecca and Medina , the two holiest cities of Islam , the cities of Najaf , Karbala , Mashhad and Qom are the most revered by Shīʿa Muslims. The Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, The Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad and the Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shīʿa Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include

9282-481: The government in 1949 established a faculty of divinity at Ankara University to train teachers of Islam and imams. In 1951 the Democrat Party government set up special secondary schools ( İmam Hatip schools ) for the training of imams and preachers. The number of these schools expanded rapidly to over 250 during the 1970s, when the pro-Islam National Salvation Party participated in coalition governments. Following

9401-489: The government legalized private broadcasting after 1990, several Islamic radio stations were organized. In the summer of 1994, the first Islamic television station, Kanal 7 , began broadcasting, first in Istanbul and then in Ankara . Although the tarikah have played a seminal role in Turkey's religious revival and in the mid-1990s still published, several of the country's most widely circulated religious journals and newspapers,

9520-549: The hadith attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and most have their own separate hadith canon . Shīʿa Muslims believe that the armaments and sacred items of all of the Abrahamic prophets , including Muhammad , were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt . Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam , in Kitab al-Kafi mentions that "with me are the arms of

9639-675: The island There are three neighborhoods located on the island: Kaflan, Quryah, and Juzayyirah (occupied by Bahrain Defence Force as officers club). The island belongs to the Capital Governorate of Bahrain. It is connected to both Bahrain Island and Sitra through the Sitra Causeway . This Bahrain location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Shi%27ite Shia Islam ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / )

9758-542: The issue that defines whether a Muslim is secularist or religious. In 2010, the Turkish Higher Educational council (YÖK) lifted the ban on headscarves at the universities. Since the start of his presidency, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has drastically increased the amount of religious high schools across Turkey to support his plan on bringing up a more pious generation. However, this push on piousness in school children seems to have had an adverse effect, for there

9877-580: The largest and most influential, comprising about 85% of all Shia Muslims. Others include the Isma'ili , Zaydi , Alevi and Alawi . Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in three countries across the Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , and Azerbaijan . Significant Shia communities are also found in Lebanon , Kuwait , Turkey , Yemen , Bahrain , Saudi Arabia , Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent . Iran stands as

9996-456: The leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the first rāshidūn caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) and ʿUthmān (644–656). With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims of Medina invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source, and he established his capital in Kufa . ʿAlī's rule over the early Islamic empire , between 656 CE to 661 CE,

10115-500: The loosening of authoritarian political control in 1946, a large number of people began to openly call for a return to traditional religious practices. During the 1950s, even certain political leaders found it expedient to join religious leaders in advocating more state respect for religion. A more direct manifestation of the growing reaction against secularism was the revival of the Sufi brotherhoods. Not only did suppressed Sufi orders such as

10234-758: The majority and in Iskenderun and Antakya where they constitute a significant minority of the population. Larger Alawite communities can also be found in the Çukurova region, mostly in and around the cities of Adana , Tarsus and Mersin . They are known as Arab Alevis by Turkish people. Folk Islam in Turkey has derived many of its popular practices from Sufism which has good presence in Turkey and Egypt . Particular Sufi shaikhs – and occasionally other individuals reputed to be pious – were regarded after death as saints having special powers. Veneration of saints (both male and female) and pilgrimages to their shrines and graves represent an important aspect of popular Islam in

10353-544: The mid-1990s. Throughout the first half of the 1990s, highly educated, articulate but religiously pious women have appeared in public dressed in Islamic attire that conceals all but their faces and hands. Other women, especially in Ankara , Istanbul , and İzmir , have demonstrated against such attire by wearing revealing fashions and Atatürk badges. The issue is discussed and debated in almost every type of forum – artistic, commercial, cultural, economic, political, and religious. For many citizens of Turkey, women's dress has become

10472-521: The order. Throughout the 1950s, there were numerous trials of Ticani and other Sufi leaders for anti-state activities. Simultaneously, some movements, notably the Süleymancı and Nurcular, cooperated with those politicians perceived as supportive of pro-Islamic policies. The Nurcular eventually advocated support for Turkey's multi-party political system , and one of its offshoots, the Gülen movement , had supported

10591-453: The overall secular order. After the 1980 coup, many of the Hearth's proposals for restructuring schools, colleges, and state broadcasting were adopted. The result was a purge from these state institutions of more than 2,000 intellectuals perceived as espousing leftist ideas incompatible with the Hearth's vision of Turkey's national culture. The state's more tolerant attitude toward Islam encouraged

10710-693: The population in Pakistan , and 10–19% of Afghanistan 's population, and 45% in Bahrain . Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismāʿīlī Sulaymani and Zaydī Shias of Najran . Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at roughly 15% of the local population. Approximately 40% of

10829-786: The population of Yemen are Shia Muslims. Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik ). The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shāfiʿī Sunnīs. A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria , made up of modern-era converts to a Shīʿīte movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states. Several African countries like Kenya , South Africa , Somalia , etc. hold small minority populations of various Shia subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during

10948-566: The proliferation of private religious activities, including the construction of new mosques and Qur'an schools in the cities, the establishment of Islamic centers for research on and conferences about Islam and its role in Turkey, and the establishment of religiously oriented professional and women's journals. The printing of newspapers, the publication of religious books, and the growth of innumerable religious projects ranging from health centers, child-care facilities, and youth hostels to financial institutions and consumer cooperatives flourished. When

11067-499: The role of Islam attracted widespread interest, they did not provoke the kind of controversy that erupted over the issue of appropriate attire for Muslim women. During the early 1980s, female college students who were determined to demonstrate their commitment to Islam began to cover their heads and necks with scarves and wear long, shape-concealing overcoats. The appearance of these women in the citadels of Turkish secularism shocked those men and women who tended to perceive such attire as

11186-593: The same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence , named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam . Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam). Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and the terms Shia Muslim and Shia often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation Twelver

11305-692: The sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam . For instance, the hadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah , for example, Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir , and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl-Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar

11424-523: The secular tendencies of the Alevi population and oppression by Sunni Islamists, which causes most Alevis to hide their religious identity. However, considering the few conducted reliable surveys, ~10% can be taken as a simplistic estimation. Some people use the term Alevi to refer all Shia Muslims in Turkey since they are the dominant Shia sect in the country. The followers of the Ja'fari jurisprudence constitute

11543-542: The state structure. However, the state usually had authority over the clergy and religious law (e.g. many Sultans are known to change Şeyhülislams , who do not approve of state politics). When the reformers of the early 1920s opted for a secular state, they removed religion from the sphere of public policy and restricted it to exclusively that of personal morals , behavior, and faith. Although private observance of religious rituals could continue, religion and religious organization were excluded from public life. In addition to

11662-496: The statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor. Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"). When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr , ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb , and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with

11781-609: The status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous ḥadīth reports , including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm , Hadith of the two weighty things , Hadith of the pen and paper , Hadith of the invitation of the close families , and Hadith of the Twelve Successors . In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shia scholars. Shia Muslims prefer to study and read

11900-399: The term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the heir , Imam, and caliph by Muhammad and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants. For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam . Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as

12019-535: The third sizable community. It is historically the primary denomination of ethnic Azerbaijani people. Most of them lives in the eastern provinces neighboring to Azerbaijan , more particularly in the Iğdır Province and Kars Province , but also larger cities in the west. It is estimated that Ja'faris make up 4% of the population of Turkey, i.e. about 3,300,000. They have 70 mosques in Istanbul and some 300 throughout

12138-434: The title of Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor. Ḥasan then retired to Medina , where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath , after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle. Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead

12257-510: The use of revenue. The Presidency of Religious Affairs, which has a budget over U.S. $ 2.5 billion in 2012, finance only Sunni Muslim worship. Sufi orders like Alevi - Bektashi , Bayrami - Jelveti , Halveti ( Gulshani , Jerrahi , Nasuhi , Rahmani , Sunbuli , Ussaki ), Hurufi - Rüfai , Malamati , Mevlevi , Nakşibendi ( Halidi , Haqqani ), Qadiri - Galibi and Ja'fari Muslims are not officially recognized. Others In terms of Ihsan : Although intellectual debates on

12376-556: The value of religion, preferring to place their trust in science . They regarded organized religion as an anachronism and contrasted it unfavorably with "civilization", which to them meant a rationalist , secular culture. Unlike in the West, the establishment of secularism in Turkey was not a gradual process of separation of church and state. In the Ottoman Empire, all residents, at least theoretically, had been subject to traditional religious law, and Sunni religious organizations had been part of

12495-573: The world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih (" Messiah ") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus , dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join

12614-559: The world's only country where Shia Islam forms the foundation of both its laws and governance system . The word Shia (or Shīʿa) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / ) ( Arabic : شيعيّ , romanized :  shīʿī, pl.  shīʿiyyūn ) is derived from شيعة علي , shīʿat ʿAlī , 'followers of Ali'. Shia Islam is also referred to in English as Shiism (or Shīʿism) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ɪ z ( ə ) m / ), and Shia Muslims as Shiites (or Shīʿites) ( / ˈ ʃ iː aɪ t / ). The term Shia

12733-588: Was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah . The Shīʿīte version of the Shahada ( Arabic : الشهادة‎ ), the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunnīs . The Sunnī version of the Shahada states La ilaha illallah, Muhammadun rasulullah ( Arabic : لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله , lit.   'There

12852-537: Was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa. En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala ; rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In the Battle of Karbala , Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head

12971-481: Was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr ( shahid ), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt . The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam . Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam. The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers

13090-478: Was first used during Muhammad's lifetime. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors. Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph . Al-Shahrastani expresses that

13209-463: Was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over the origins of Shia Islam , with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement. Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept. Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during

13328-521: Was often contested. Tensions eventually led to the First Fitna , the first major civil war between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's khilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him. Tensions escalated into the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious against Aisha , Talhah , and al-Zubayr . However,

13447-651: Was originally Sunni and non-political, but later became both Shi'a and politically based in northwest Iran . During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Safavid and similar orders such as the Bektaşi became rivals of the Ottomans —who were orthodox Sunni Muslims—for political control of eastern Anatolia. Although the Bektaşi order became accepted as a sect of orthodox Sunni Muslims, they did not abandon their heterodox beliefs. In contrast,

13566-412: Was reduced and eventually eliminated. Religious foundations were nationalized. The influential and popular orders of the dervish brotherhoods ( Tariqa ) were also suppressed. The withdrawal of Turkey, heir to the Ottoman Empire, as the presumptive leader of the international Muslim community, was symbolic of the change in the government's relationship to Islam. Secularism (or laiklik ) became one of

13685-417: Was secularized at a legal level, religion remained a strong force. After 1950, some political leaders espoused support for programs and policies that appealed to the religiously inclined in an attempt to benefit from a lot of the population's attachment to religion. Such efforts were opposed by most of the state, who believed that secularism was an essential principle of Kemalist Ideology . This gradually led to

13804-505: Was the Intellectuals' Hearth ( Turkish : Aydınlar Ocağı ), an organization that holds the beliefs that true Turkish culture is a synthesis of the Turks' pre-Islamic traditions and Islam. According to the Hearth, Islam not only constitutes an essential aspect of Turkish culture, but is a force that can be regulated by the state to help socialize the people to be obedient citizens acquiescent to

13923-476: Was the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader later developed into the concept of Imamah , the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the Ahl al-Bayt ( أَهْل البَيْت , 'People of the House';), are rightful rulers or Imams through the bloodline of Ali and his two sons Hasan and Husayn , whom Shia Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over

14042-446: Was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph. It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam that divine wisdom ( ʿaql )

14161-446: Was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge ( ḥikmah ), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation ( waḥy ), he had a close relationship with God , through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate , or belief in

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