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121-882: The ideas in The Muslim Manifesto: A Strategy for Survival launched the Muslim Parliament. Authored primarily by Kalim Siddiqui, the Manifesto declared: "It is a matter of deep regret that the Government, all political parties and the mass media in Britain are now engaged in a relentless campaign to reduce Muslim citizens of this country to the status of a disparaged and oppressed minority. We have no alternative but to resist this insidious campaign." The Muslim Manifesto made it clear that "Political and cultural subservience goes against their grain" because "at its inception Islam created

242-496: A Meccan convert by the name of Abd Allah ibn Sa'd , who left Islam after the Prophet failed to notice small changes he had made in the dictation of the Qur'an. Daniel Pipes identified other more general issues in the book likely to have angered pious Muslims: A complaint in the book by one of the character's companions: "rules about every damn thing, if a man farts, let him turn his face to

363-664: A Prime Minister of Pakistan". Positions Rushdie took as a committed leftist prior to the publication of his book were the source of some controversy. He defended many of those who would later attack him during the controversy. Rushdie forcefully denounced the Shah 's government and supported the Islamic Revolution of Iran , at least in its early stages. He condemned the US bombing raid on Tripoli in 1986 but found himself threatened by Libya 's leader Muammar al-Gaddafi three years later. He wrote

484-688: A book bitterly critical of US foreign policy in general and its war in Nicaragua in particular, for example calling the United States government , "the bandit posing as sheriff". After the Ayatollah's fatwa however, he was accused by the Iranian government of being "an inferior CIA agent". A few years earlier, an official jury appointed by a ministry of the Iranian Islamic government had bestowed an award on

605-514: A certain section of the congregation marched from the Deobandi run Zakariyya Jame Masjid to the town centre and then burned the book. The organisers claimed "It was a peaceful protest, and we burned the book to try and attract public attention". The City of Bradford gained international attention in January 1989 when some of its members organized a public book-burning of The Satanic Verses , evoking as

726-580: A chance to repent (p. 93), and Ayatollah Mehdi Rohani , head of the Shi'i community in Europe and a cousin of Khomeini, criticised Khomeini for 'respect[ing] neither international law nor that of Islam.' There was also criticism of the fatwa issued against Rushdie's publishers. According to Daniel Pipes, the Sharia "clearly establishes that disseminating false information is not the same as expressing it. 'Transmitting blasphemy

847-538: A citizen of another country living in that country. The twelve members of the European Economic Community removed their ambassadors from Tehran for three weeks. In addition to criticism of the death sentence on the basis of human rights, the sentence was also criticised on Islamic grounds. According to Bernard Lewis , a death warrant without trial, defence and other legal aspects of sharia violates Islamic jurisprudence. In Islamic fiqh , apostasy by

968-452: A conjurer, a magician and a false prophet, yet these remarks are made by a drunken apostate, a character with whom neither reader nor author has any sympathy; that the book insults the wives of the Prophet by having whores use their names, yet the wives are explicitly said to be chaste and the adoption of their names by whores is to symbolise the corruption of the city then being described (perhaps symbolising Mecca in its pre-Islamic state); that

1089-467: A different time (e.g., during the day), at a different place (e.g., at a government building or in another public forum ), or in a different manner (e.g., a silent protest ). Funeral Protests are a complex issue in the United States. It is a right to Americans to be able to hold a peaceful protest against various policies they deem unreasonable. It is a question of whether or not it is appropriate through

1210-768: A formal indictment against Rushdie for the crime of blasphemous libel : it was said that God was described in the book as "the Destroyer of Man", yet he is described as such in the Old Testament and the Book of Revelation , especially of men who are unbelievers or enemies of the Jews; that the book contained criticisms of the prophet Abraham, yet the Islamic, Christian and Jewish traditions themselves see Abraham as not without fault and deserving of criticism; that Rushdie referred to Mohammed as "Mahound",

1331-552: A major part in the public life of the Muslim community in Britain... The fact is that a Muslim woman cannot be a western woman... Muslim women have a higher and nobler place in society than the so-called "emancipated" women in the west". The Manifesto establishes a six-point "Relationship with the British authorities": See also Satanic Verses controversy The position of the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain and its leader Kalim Siddiqui

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1452-406: A mentally sound adult male is a capital crime . For Lewis, fiqh also "lays down procedures according to which a person accused of an offense is to be brought to trial, confronted with his accuser , and given the opportunity to defend himself." Lewis added that "[a] judge will then give a verdict and if he finds the accused guilty, pronounce sentence", and that "[e]ven the most rigorous and extreme of

1573-558: A more adaptable and at the same time more stable community, of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy cleavage and necessary consensus". Emerson furthermore maintains that "Opposition serves a vital social function in offsetting or ameliorating (the) normal process of bureaucratic decay". Research undertaken by the Worldwide Governance Indicators project at the World Bank , indicates that freedom of speech, and

1694-468: A non-Muslim becomes aware of Rushdie's whereabouts and has the ability to execute him quicker than Muslims, it is incumbent on Muslims to pay a reward or a fee in return for this action. In a 2007 article, journalist Anthony McRoy theorized that Khomeini refused the apology on the basis of an interpretation of the Islamic law posited by Al-Shafi'i , a 9th century jurist, who, in his Risala (Maliki Manual 37.19 Crimes Against Islam ), ruled that an "apostate

1815-461: A notable impact on geopolitics when, in 1989, Ruhollah Khomeini , Supreme Leader of Iran , issued a fatwa ordering Muslims to kill Rushdie. The Iranian government has changed its support for the fatwa several times, including in 1998 when Mohammad Khatami said the regime no longer supported it. However, a fatwa cannot be revoked in Shia Islamic tradition. In 2017, a statement was published on

1936-421: A political platform from which Muslims were to launch themselves on a global role as founders of great states, empires and a world civilization and culture." The Muslim Manifesto proposes setting up a "Council of Muslim Women in Britain", stating that "It is for Muslim women themselves to develop an Islamic lifestyle in the context of the needs of the Muslim community in Britain. It is also for Muslim women to play

2057-408: A report published in 1776, he wrote: No evidence should be needed that a certain freedom of writing and printing is one of the strongest bulwarks of a free organization of the state, as, without it, the estates would not have sufficient information for the drafting of good laws, and those dispensing justice would not be monitored, nor would the subjects know the requirements of the law, the limits of

2178-408: A right includes the content and the means of expression. The right to freedom of speech and expression is closely related to other rights. It may be limited when conflicting with other rights (see limitations on freedom of speech ). The right to freedom of expression is also related to the right to a fair trial and court proceeding which may limit access to the search for information, or determine

2299-407: A serious threat of being killed, for what they say or write"  – against the view of some Muslims that non-Muslims should not be free to disparage the "honour of the Prophet" or indirectly criticise Islam through satire  – and that religious violence is appropriate in contemporary history in order to defend Islam and Muhammad. English writer Hanif Kureishi called

2420-476: A theologian at Al-Azhar University , argued "Blood must not be shed except after a trial [when the accused has been] given a chance to defend himself and repent". Abdallah al-Mushidd, head of Azhar's Fatwā Council stated "We must try the author in a legal fashion as Islam does not accept killing as a legal instrument". The Islamic Jurisprudence Academy in Mecca urged that Rushdie be tried, and if found guilty, be given

2541-441: A victim of Saudi's internet censorship and was facing death sentence. Saudi-controlled media portrayed him as a dangerous preacher due to his Twitter and WhatsApp posts, but dissidents considered him as an important intellectual who maintained strong social media influence. Some legal scholars (such as Tim Wu of Columbia University ) have argued that the traditional issues of free speech—that "the main threat to free speech"

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2662-648: Is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society . Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers. According to Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault, the public domain is under pressure from the " commodification of information" as information with previously little or no economic value has acquired independent economic value in

2783-604: Is also explicitly protected by acts such as the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act of Ontario, in Canada. The Access to Information Act gives Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and any person or corporation present in Canada a right to access records of government institutions that are subject to the Act. The concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of

2904-536: Is also illegal in some countries. Apostasy has been instrumentalized to restrict freedom of speech in some countries. In some countries, blasphemy is a crime. For example, in Austria, defaming Muhammad , the prophet of Islam, is not protected as free speech. In contrast, in France, blasphemy and disparagement of Muhammad are protected under free speech law. Certain public institutions may also enact policies restricting

3025-714: Is also killed unless he repents... Whoever abuses the Messenger of God ... is to be executed, and his repentance is not accepted". In Britain, the Union of Islamic Students' Associations in Europe, which is the largest collective of Islamic Students in Europe, issued a statement offering to commit murder for Khomeini. Despite incitement to murder being illegal in the United Kingdom, one London property developer told reporters, "If I see him, I will kill him straight away. Take my name and address. One day I will kill him". Despite supporting

3146-468: Is both false and potentially dangerous, such as falsely shouting "Fire!" in a theatre and causing a panic . Justifications for limitations to freedom of speech often reference the " harm principle " or the "offence principle". In On Liberty (1859), John Stuart Mill argued that "...there ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered". Mill argues that

3267-411: Is killed in this cause will be a martyr, Allah willing . Meanwhile, if someone has access to the author of the book but is incapable of carrying out the execution, he should inform the people so that [Rushdie] is punished for his actions. Khomeini did not give a legal reasoning for his judgement. It is thought to be based on the ninth chapter of the Qur'an, called At-Tawba , verse 61: "Some of them hurt

3388-614: Is not a criminal offence. In November 1988, it was also banned in Bangladesh , Sudan , and South Africa. By December 1988, it was also banned in Sri Lanka . In March 1989, it was banned in Malaysia, followed by Brunei in the same year. In Britain, on 2 December 1988, 7,000 Muslims in the town of Bolton staged the first ever demonstration against The Satanic Verses . After the Friday prayers,

3509-508: Is not blasphemy' ( naql al-kufr laysa kufr )." In addition, the publishers were not Muslim and so could not be "sentenced under the Islamic laws of apostasy". If there was another legal justification for sentencing them to death, "Khomeini failed to provide" it. Iran's response to calls for a trial was to denounce its Islamic proponents as "deceitful". President Khomeini accused them of attempting to use religious law as "a flag under which they can crush revolutionary Islam". Some speculate that

3630-448: Is obliged to help any speakers publish their views, and no one is required to listen to, agree with, or acknowledge the speaker or the speaker's views. These concepts correspond to earlier traditions of natural law and common law rights. Freedom of speech is understood to be fundamental in a democracy. The norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. One of

3751-619: Is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , adopted in 1948, states that: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Today, freedom of speech, or

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3872-583: Is the " Great Firewall of China " (in reference both to its role as a network firewall and the ancient Great Wall of China ). The system blocks content by preventing IP addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewall and proxy servers at the internet gateways . The system also selectively engages in DNS poisoning when particular sites are requested. The government does not appear to be systematically examining Internet content, as this appears to be technically impractical. Internet censorship in

3993-426: Is the censorship of "suppressive states", and that "ill-informed or malevolent speech" can and should be overcome by "more and better speech" rather than censorship—assumes scarcity of information. This scarcity prevailed during the 20th century, but with the arrival of the internet, information became plentiful, "but the attention of listeners" scarce. Furthermore, in the words of Wu, this "cheap speech" made possible by

4114-440: Is the creature of evil". The Guardian newspaper published on 14 September 2012 a series of recollections of various British people involved in the controversy. Lisa Appignanesi , ex-president of English PEN , observed "Intransigence is never so great as when it feels it has a god on its side." One of the lawyers involved, Geoffrey Robertson QC , rehearsed the arguments and replies made when 13 Muslim barristers had lodged

4235-426: Is understood as a multi-faceted right that includes not only the right to express, or disseminate, information and ideas but three further distinct aspects: International, regional and national standards also recognise that freedom of speech, as the freedom of expression, includes any medium, whether orally, in writing, in print, through the internet or art forms. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as

4356-818: The British Indian author Salman Rushdie . Satanic Verses controversy The Satanic Verses controversy , also known as the Rushdie Affair , was a controversy sparked by the 1988 publication of Salman Rushdie 's novel The Satanic Verses . It centered on the novel's references to the Satanic Verses ( apocryphal verses of the Quran), and came to include a larger debate about censorship and religious violence. It included numerous killings, attempted killings (including against Rushdie himself ), and bombings by perpetrators who supported Islam. The affair had

4477-505: The Golden Shield Project , an initiative by Chinese government's Ministry of Public Security that filters potentially unfavourable data from foreign countries. Facebook routinely and automatically eliminates what it perceives as hate speech, even if such words are used ironically or poetically with no intent to insult others. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative measures the right to opinion and expression for countries around

4598-781: The ICCPR later amends this by stating that the exercise of these rights carries "special duties and responsibilities" and may "therefore be subject to certain restrictions" when necessary "[f]or respect of the rights or reputation of others" or "[f]or the protection of national security or public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals ". Freedom of speech and expression, therefore, may not be recognized as being absolute, and common limitations or boundaries to freedom of speech relate to libel , slander , obscenity , pornography , sedition , incitement , fighting words , hate speech , classified information , copyright violation , trade secrets , food labeling , non-disclosure agreements ,

4719-751: The Internet . The Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 was the first major attempt by the United States Congress to regulate pornographic material on the Internet. In 1997, in the landmark cyberlaw case of Reno v. ACLU , the US Supreme Court partially overturned the law. Judge Stewart R. Dalzell , one of the three federal judges who in June 1996 declared parts of the CDA unconstitutional, in his opinion stated

4840-448: The Iranian state news agency reported that the fatwa will remain in place permanently. Freedom of speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship , or legal sanction. The right to freedom of expression has been recognised as a human right in

4961-544: The Persian translation of Rushdie's book Shame , which up until then was the only time a government had awarded Rushdie's work a prize. The title The Satanic Verses immediately sparked vehement protest against Rushdie's book. The title refers to a legend of Muhammad ; a few verses were supposedly spoken by him as part of the Qur'an which praised the pagan goddesses of Al-Lat , Al-Uzza , and Manat . The verses were then withdrawn on

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5082-501: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law by the United Nations . Many countries have constitutional law that protects free speech. Terms like free speech , freedom of speech, and freedom of expression are used interchangeably in political discourse. However, in a legal sense, the freedom of expression includes any activity of seeking, receiving, and imparting information or ideas, regardless of

5203-438: The right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology . As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right. Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i.e., the ability to access Web content , without censorship or restrictions. Freedom of information

5324-452: The right to privacy , dignity , the right to be forgotten , public security , blasphemy and perjury . Justifications for such include the harm principle , proposed by John Stuart Mill in On Liberty , which suggests that "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others". The idea of

5445-605: The " Information Society " in stating: We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication

5566-426: The "offense principle" is also used to justify speech limitations, describing the restriction on forms of expression deemed offensive to society, considering factors such as extent, duration, motives of the speaker, and ease with which it could be avoided. With the evolution of the digital age , application of freedom of speech becomes more controversial as new means of communication and restrictions arise, for example,

5687-513: The "time of ignorance" before Islam, for the holy city of Mecca ; the use of the name of the Angel Gibreel (Gabriel) for a film star, of the name of Saladin , the well known Muslim military leader during the Crusades, for a devil, and the name of Ayesha , the wife of Muhammad, for a fanatical Indian girl who leads her village on a fatal pilgrimage. Moreover, the brothel of the city of Jahiliyyah

5808-574: The 1590s, and it was affirmed in the Protestation of 1621 . Restating what is written in the English Declaration of Right, 1689 , England's Bill of Rights 1689 legally established the constitutional right of freedom of speech in Parliament, which is still in effect. This so-called parliamentary privilege includes no possible defamation claims meaning Parliamentarians are free to speak up in

5929-418: The Government can fill that role as well. In my view, our action today should only mean that Government's permissible supervision of Internet contents stops at the traditional line of unprotected speech. [...] The absence of governmental regulation of Internet content has unquestionably produced a kind of chaos, but as one of the plaintiff's experts put it with such resonance at the hearing: "What achieved success

6050-415: The Government of all means of protecting children from the dangers of Internet communication. The Government can continue to protect children from pornography on the Internet through vigorous enforcement of existing laws criminalising obscenity and child pornography . [...] As we learned at the hearing, there is also a compelling need for public educations about the benefits and dangers of this new medium, and

6171-572: The House without fear of legal action. This protection extends to written proceedings: for example, written and oral questions, motions and amendments tabled to bills and motions. One of the world's first freedom of the press acts was introduced in Sweden in 1766 ( Swedish Freedom of the Press Act ), mainly due to the classical liberal member of parliament and Ostrobothnian priest Anders Chydenius . In

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6292-416: The Internet can be unfiltered, unpolished, and unconventional, even emotionally charged, sexually explicit, and vulgar – in a word, "indecent" in many communities. But we should expect such speech to occur in a medium in which citizens from all walks of life have a voice. We should also protect the autonomy that such a medium confers to ordinary people as well as media magnates.[...] My analysis does not deprive

6413-600: The People's Republic of China is conducted under a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations, including more than sixty regulations directed at the Internet. Censorship systems are vigorously implemented by provincial branches of state-owned ISPs , business companies, and organizations. Saudi Arabia 's government had been intensifying the scrutiny of social media accounts, under which they were detaining several activists, critics and even normal social media users over few critical tweets. A law professor, Awad Al-Qarni became

6534-475: The Prophet. Before the publication of The Satanic Verses , the publisher received "warnings from the publisher's editorial consultant" that the book might be controversial. Later, Rushdie would reflect upon the time that the book was about to be published. Speaking to an interviewer, he said, "I expected a few mullahs would be offended, call me names, and then I could defend myself in public... I honestly never expected anything like this". The Satanic Verses

6655-521: The Supreme Being in another dream as "not abstract in the least. He saw, sitting on the bed, a man of about the same age as himself", balding, wearing glasses and "seeming to suffer from dandruff ". A complaint by one of the characters about communal violence in India: "Fact is, religious faith, which encodes the highest aspirations of human race, is now, in our country, the servant of lowest instincts, and God

6776-662: The Worldwide Governance Indicators measure for more than 200 countries. Against this backdrop it is important that development agencies create grounds for effective support for a free press in developing countries. Richard Moon has developed the argument that the value of freedom of speech and freedom of expression lies with social interactions. Moon writes that "by communicating an individual forms relationships and associations with others – family, friends, co-workers, church congregation, and countrymen. By entering into discussion with others an individual participates in

6897-447: The actor, and that it is probably a necessary means to that end". Hence Feinberg argues that the harm principle sets the bar too high and that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited by law because they are very offensive. Nevertheless, as offending someone is less serious than harming someone, the penalties imposed should be higher for causing harm. In contrast, Mill does not support legal penalties unless they are based on

7018-433: The bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. However, freedom of the press does not necessarily enable freedom of speech. Judith Lichtenberg has outlined conditions in which freedom of the press may constrain freedom of speech. For example, if all the people who control the various mediums of publication suppress information or stifle the diversity of voices inherent in freedom of speech. This limitation

7139-711: The book took place in Islamabad, Pakistan. Six protesters were killed in an attack on the American Cultural Center, and an American Express office was ransacked. In the United States, the FBI was notified of 78 threats to bookstores in early March 1989, thought to be a small proportion of the total number of threats. The bookstore chain B. Dalton , for instance, received 30 threats in less than three hours. Bombings of book stores included two in Berkeley, California . In New York,

7260-452: The book vilified the companions of the Prophet, calling them "bums from Persia" and "clowns", yet the character saying this is a hack poet hired to write propaganda against the Prophet and does not reflect the author's beliefs; that the book criticised Islam for having too many rules and seeking to control every aspect of life, yet while characters in the book do make such remarks these cannot constitute blasphemy since they do not vilify God or

7381-499: The book's release. In Crowley's opinion, the fatwa was most likely declared because of this section of the novel and its public exposure, rather than the overall parodic treatment of Islam. On 24 September 1998, as a precondition to the restoration of diplomatic relations with Britain, the Iranian government, then headed by reformist Muhammad Khatami , gave a public commitment that it would "neither support nor hinder assassination operations on Rushdie". In early 2005, Khomeini's fatwa

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7502-517: The book, it was kept under the counter. On 14 February 1989, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , the Supreme Leader of Iran and one of the most prominent Shi'a Muslim leaders, issued a fatwa calling for the death of Rushdie and his publishers. This created a major international incident that persisted for many years. Broadcast on Iranian radio, the judgement read: We are from Allah and to Allah we shall return . I am informing all brave Muslims of

7623-430: The classical jurists only require a Muslim to kill anyone who insults the Prophet in his hearing and in his presence. They say nothing about a hired killing for a reported insult in a distant country." Other Islamic scholars outside Iran took issue with the fact that the sentence was not passed by an Islamic court, or that it did not limit its "jurisdiction only [to] countries under Islamic law". Muhammad Hussam al Din,

7744-543: The death of her husband through neglect". His 1983 roman à clef Shame "took an aim on Pakistan, its political characters, its culture and its religion... [It covered] a central episode in Pakistan's internal life, which portrays as a family squabble between Iskander Harappa ( Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ) and his successor and executioner Raza Hyder ( Zia ul-Haq )... 'The Virgin Ironpants'... has been identified as Benazir Bhutto ,

7865-501: The debate is characterized by a cacophony of competing harm arguments without any way to resolve them. There is no longer an argument within the structure of the debate to resolve the competing claims of harm. The original harm principle was never equipped to determine the relative importance of harms". Interpretations of both the harm and offense limitations to freedom of speech are culturally and politically relative. For instance, in Russia,

7986-616: The development of knowledge and in the direction of the community". Freedom of speech is not regarded as absolute by some, with most legal systems generally setting limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other rights and protections, such as in the cases of libel , slander , pornography , obscenity , fighting words , and intellectual property . Some limitations to freedom of speech may occur through legal sanction, and others may occur through social disapprobation. In Saudi Arabia, journalists are forbidden to write with disrespect or disapproval of

8107-399: The electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism. Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the democratic ideal. Eric Barendt has called this defence of free speech on the grounds of democracy "probably the most attractive and certainly

8228-404: The fatwa "one of the most significant events in postwar literary history". Even before the publication of The Satanic Verses , the books of Salman Rushdie had stoked controversy. Rushdie saw his role as a writer "as including the function of antagonist to the state". His second book Midnight's Children angered Indira Gandhi because it seemed to suggest "that Mrs. Gandhi was responsible for

8349-574: The fatwa (or at least the reaffirmation of the death threat four days later) was issued with motives other than a sense of duty to protect Islam by punishing blasphemy/apostasy. Namely: Despite claims by Iranian officials that "Rushdie's book did not insult Iran or Iranian leaders" and so they had no selfish personal motivation to attack the book, the book does include an eleven-page sketch of Khomeini's stay in Paris that could well be considered an insult to him. It describes him as having "grown monstrous, lying in

8470-661: The fatwa ). After Siddiqui's death in 1996, however, his successor Ghayasuddin Siddiqui renewed support for the fatwa. His support for the fatwa continued, even after the President of Iran said his government would not pursue -- though also not withdraw -- the fatwa. and reiterated his support in 2000. Meanwhile, in America, the director of the Near East Studies Center at UCLA , George Sabbagh, told an interviewer that Khomeini

8591-507: The fatwa, some other leaders claimed that British Muslims were not allowed to carry out the fatwa themselves in order to avoid violating the law of a land in which they are a minority, and that only outside Muslims had an obligation to carry out the fatwa. Proponents of this view included the Muslim Parliament and its leader Kalim Siddiqui (who later said he believed he may have been "partially responsible" for getting Khomeini to issue

8712-409: The fatwa. and reiterated his support in 2000. The Muslim Parliament today is radically different both in size and aims. It is led by Ghayasuddin Siddiqui and Deputy Leader, Jaffer Clarke. Dr Siddiqui was also a founding trustee of British Muslims for Secular Democracy . It is unclear whether the Parliament actually holds regular elections, or has any form of democratic accountability. Dr Siddiqui, as

8833-401: The following: The Internet is a far more speech-enhancing medium than print , the village green , or the mails . Because it would necessarily affect the Internet itself, the CDA would necessarily reduce the speech available for adults on the medium. This is a constitutionally intolerable result. Some of the dialogue on the Internet surely tests the limits of conventional discourse. Speech on

8954-400: The forefathers of idolaters. The utterance and withdrawal of the so-called Satanic Verses forms an important sub-plot in the novel, which recounts several episodes in the life of Muhammad. The phrase Arab historians and later Muslims used to describe the incident of the withdrawn verses was not "Satanic verses", but the gharaniq verses; the phrase "Satanic verses" was unknown to Muslims, and

9075-670: The freedom of expression, is recognised in international and regional human rights law . The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights , Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights . Based on John Milton 's arguments, freedom of speech

9196-400: The freedom of speech, for example, speech codes at state-operated schools . In the U.S., the standing landmark opinion on political speech is Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), expressly overruling Whitney v. California . In Brandenburg , the U.S. Supreme Court referred to the right even to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms: [Our] decisions have fashioned

9317-436: The fullest liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits, rather than the limits of social embarrassment. In 1985, Joel Feinberg introduced what is known as the "offence principle". Feinberg wrote, "It is always a good reason in support of a proposed criminal prohibition that it would probably be an effective way of preventing serious offence (as opposed to injury or harm) to persons other than

9438-580: The grounds that the devil had sent them to deceive Muhammad into thinking they came from God . These " Satanic Verses " are said to have been revealed between verses 20 and 21 in Surah An-Najm of the Qur'an, and feature in accounts by Al-Tabari and Ibn Ishaq . The verses also appear in other accounts of the prophet's life. Verse 23 in Surah An-Najm implies that the Satanic Verses were fabricated by

9559-638: The harm and offense principles have been used to justify the Russian LGBT propaganda law restricting speech (and action) concerning LGBT issues. Many European countries outlaw speech that might be interpreted as Holocaust denial . These include Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia, Switzerland and Romania. Armenian genocide denial

9680-412: The harm principle. Because the degree to which people may take offence varies, or may be the result of unjustified prejudice, Feinberg suggests that several factors need to be taken into account when applying the offence principle, including: the extent, duration and social value of the speech, the ease with which it can be avoided, the motives of the speaker, the number of people offended, the intensity of

9801-415: The information age. This includes factual data, personal data , genetic information and pure ideas . The commodification of information is taking place through intellectual property law, contract law , as well as broadcasting and telecommunications law. Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet . Freedom of information may also refer to

9922-418: The internet " ... may be used to attack, harass, and silence as much as it is used to illuminate or debate". The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has argued that "censorship cannot be the only answer to disinformation online" and that tech companies "have a history of overcorrecting and censoring accurate, useful speech—or, even worse, reinforcing misinformation with their policies." According to Wu, in

10043-636: The internet. Internet censorship includes the control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. The Global Internet Freedom Consortium claims to remove blocks to the "free flow of information" for what they term "closed societies". According to the Reporters without Borders (RWB) "internet enemy list" the following states engage in pervasive internet censorship: Mainland China, Cuba, Iran, Myanmar / Burma , North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , and Vietnam. A widely publicized example of internet censorship

10164-495: The journalist Robert Winder recalled "images of medieval (not to mention Nazi) intolerance". In February, when the US edition was published, a new round of reviews and criticism began. March 1989 saw it banned in Kenya, Thailand, Tanzania, Indonesia, and Singapore. The last nation to ban the book was Venezuela, in June 1989. On 12 February 1989, a 10,000-strong protest against Rushdie and

10285-482: The medium used. Article 19 of the UDHR states that "everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference" and "everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice". The version of Article 19 in

10406-401: The most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies". Thomas I. Emerson expanded on this defence when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change . Freedom of speech acts as a "safety valve" to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution . He argues that "The principle of open discussion is a method of achieving

10527-482: The most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn . He has argued that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work, an informed electorate is necessary. In order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power can manipulate

10648-604: The name Mahound instead of Muhammad for his chapter on Islam. After the book was first published in the United Kingdom (in September 1988), there were protests by Muslims that predominantly took place in India and the UK. When the book was published in February 1989 in the United States, it received renewed attention, and worldwide protests began to take a more violent form. In Islamic communities,

10769-406: The novel became instantly controversial, because of what some Muslims considered blasphemous references. Rushdie was accused of misusing freedom of speech . By October 1988, letters and phone calls arrived at Viking Penguin from Muslims, angry with the book and demanding that it be withdrawn. Before the end of the month, the import of the book was banned in India, although possession of the book

10890-411: The offence, and the general interest of the community at large. Jasper Doomen argued that harm should be defined from the point of view of the individual citizen, not limiting harm to physical harm since nonphysical harm may also be involved; Feinberg's distinction between harm and offence is criticized as largely trivial. In 1999, Bernard Harcourt wrote of the collapse of the harm principle: "Today

11011-558: The office of a community newspaper, The Riverdale Press , was all but destroyed by firebombs following the publication of an editorial defending the right to read the novel and criticising the bookstores that pulled it from their shelves. But the United Kingdom was the country where violence against bookstores occurred most often and persisted the longest. Two large bookstores in Charing Cross Road, London, ( Collets and Dillons ) were bombed on 9 April. In May, explosions went off in

11132-519: The official website of the current supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei, stating that "the decree is as Imam Khomeini (ra) issued" and in February 2019, the Khamenei.ir Twitter account stated that Khomeini's verdict was "solid and irrevocable". The issue was said to have divided "Muslims from Westerners along the fault line of culture," and to have pitted a core Western value of freedom of expression  – that no one "should be killed, or face

11253-460: The only voice of the Parliament, regularly used the platform to espouse seemingly moderate views, most recently through the launch of a marriage contract with the stated aim of protecting Muslim women. This is in marked contrast to a previously fundamentalist position. In 2000, the Independent reported Dr Siddiqui's continued support for the instruction for murder placed by the Iranian government on

11374-414: The opportunity and means in which freedom of expression is manifested within court proceedings. As a general principle freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy , as well as the honor and reputation of others. However, greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved. The right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media , which play a special role as

11495-485: The palace forecourt with his mouth yawning open at the gates; as the people march through the gates he swallows them whole". In the words of one observer, "If this is not an insult, Khomeini was far more tolerant than one might suppose". John Crowley has noted that the section of the book depicting the Khomeini-like character was selected to be read publicly by Rushdie in the promotional events leading up to and following

11616-572: The press. On 19 February 1990, Ayatollah Khomeini's office replied: The imperialist foreign media falsely alleged that the officials of the Islamic Republic have said the sentence of death on the author of The Satanic Verses will be retracted if he repents. Imam Khomeini has said: This is denied 100%. Even if Salman Rushdie repents and become the most pious man of all time, it is incumbent on every Muslim to employ everything he has got, his life and wealth, to send him to Hell. Khomeini added: If

11737-897: The principle of public access to official records in Sweden. Excluded were defamation of the king's majesty and the Swedish Church . The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. Adopted in 1791, freedom of speech is a feature of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . The French Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that: The free communication of ideas and opinions

11858-456: The principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not allow a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or cause such action. The opinion in Brandenburg discarded the previous test of "clear and present danger" and made

11979-400: The process of accountability that follows it, have a significant impact on the quality of governance of a country. "Voice and Accountability" within a country, defined as "the extent to which a country's citizens are able to participate in selecting their government , as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association , and free media " is one of the six dimensions of governance that

12100-481: The prophet by saying, 'He is all ears!' Say, 'It is better for you that he listens to you. He believes in God, and trusts the believers. He is a mercy for those among you who believe.' Those who hurt God's messenger have incurred a painful retribution". However it was not explained how that chapter could support such a judgement. Over the next few days, Iranian officials offered a bounty of $ 6 million for killing Rushdie, who

12221-664: The right to freedom of (political) speech protections in the United States almost absolute. Hate speech is also protected by the First Amendment in the United States, as decided in R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul , (1992) in which the Supreme Court ruled that hate speech is permissible, except in the case of imminent violence. See the First Amendment to the United States Constitution for more detailed information on this decision and its historical background. Limitations based on time, place, and manner apply to all speech, regardless of

12342-587: The rights of government, and their responsibilities. Education and ethical conduct would be crushed; coarseness in thought, speech, and manners would prevail, and dimness would darken the entire sky of our freedom in a few years. Under the leadership of Anders Chydenius, the Caps at the Swedish Riksdag in Gävle on December 2, 1766, passed the adoption of a freedom of the press regulation that stopped censorship and introduced

12463-520: The royal family, religion, or the government. Journalists are also not given any legal protection for their writing in Saudi Arabia. Journalist Jamal Khashoggi was a critic of the Saudi Arabian government. He was killed in 2018 by Saudi Arabian officials for his writing. Some views are illegal to express because they are perceived by some to be harmful to others. This category often includes speech that

12584-620: The time, place and manner outlook to protest funeral proceedings. Because of recent flare ups of this occurring, legislation has been put to action to limit this. Now, funeral protests are governed and prohibited by law on a state-to-state basis inside the United States. Jo Glanville, editor of the Index on Censorship , states that "the Internet has been a revolution for censorship as much as for free speech". International, national and regional standards recognise that freedom of speech, as one form of freedom of expression, applies to any medium, including

12705-695: The town of High Wycombe and again in London, on Kings Road . Other bombings included one at a large London department store ( Liberty's ), in connection with the Penguin Bookshop inside the store, and at the Penguin store in York . Unexploded devices were found at Penguin stores in Guildford , Nottingham , and Peterborough . In the United States, it was unavailable in about one-third of bookstores. In many others that carried

12826-461: The view expressed. They are generally restrictions that are intended to balance other rights or a legitimate government interest . For example, a time, place, and manner restriction might prohibit a noisy political demonstration at a politician's home during the middle of the night, as that impinges upon the rights of the politician's neighbors to quiet enjoyment of their own homes. An otherwise identical activity might be permitted if it happened at

12947-457: The wind, a rule about which hand to use for the purpose of cleaning one's behind ...", which was said to mix up "Islamic law with its opposite and with the author's whimsy"; the prophet of Rushdie's novel, as he lies dying, being visited in a dream by the Goddess Al-Lat , on the grounds that this suggested either that she exists or that the prophet thought she did; the angel Gibreel's vision of

13068-525: The world are genuinely distressed by the publication of my novel. I profoundly regret the distress the publication has occasioned to the sincere followers of Islam. Living as we do in a world of many faiths, this experience has served to remind us that we must all be conscious of the sensibilities of others. This was relayed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tehran "via official channels" before being released to

13189-408: The world that the author of The Satanic Verses , a text written, edited, and published against Islam, the Prophet of Islam, and the Qur'an, along with all the editors and publishers aware of its contents, are condemned to death. I call on all valiant Muslims wherever they may be in the world to kill them without delay, so that no one will dare insult the sacred beliefs of Muslims henceforth. And whoever

13310-460: The world, using a survey of in-country human rights experts. Freedom of speech and expression has a long history that predates modern international human rights instruments . It is thought that the ancient Athenian democratic principle of free speech may have emerged in the late 6th or early 5th century BC. Freedom of speech was vindicated by Erasmus and Milton . Edward Coke claimed freedom of speech as "an ancient custom of Parliament" in

13431-480: Was "completely within his rights" to call for Rushdie's death. In May 1989 in Beirut, Lebanon , British citizen Jackie Mann was abducted "in response to Iran's fatwa against Salman Rushdie for the publication of The Satanic Verses and more specifically, for his refuge and protection in the United Kingdom". He joined several Westerners held hostage there. Two months earlier a photograph of three teachers held hostage

13552-515: Was coined by Orientalist Western academics specialising in the study of cultures considered eastern. The story itself is not found in the six Sahih of the Sunni or the Shiite sources, so much so that Muraghi, in his commentary, says: "These traditions are undoubtedly a fabrication of the heretics and foreign hands, and have not been found in any of the authentic books". According to Daniel Pipes, when attention

13673-560: Was drawn to a book with this title, "Muslims found [it] incredibly sacrilegious", and took it to imply that the book's author claimed that verses of the Qur'an were "the work of the Devil". According to McRoy (2007), other controversial elements included the use of the name Mahound , said to be a derogatory term for Muhammad used by the English during the Crusades ; the use of the term Jahilia, denoting

13794-419: Was famously summarised as "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one". Lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle "no money, no voice". Freedom of speech is usually seen as a negative right . This means that the government is legally obliged to take no action against the speaker based on the speaker's views, but that no one

13915-489: Was published by Viking Penguin on 26 September 1988 in the UK, and on 22 February 1989 in the US. Upon its publication the book garnered considerable critical acclaim in the United Kingdom. On 8 November 1988, the work received the Whitbread Award for novel of the year, worth £20,000. According to one observer, "almost all the British book reviewers" were unaware of the book's connection to Islam because Rushdie has used

14036-487: Was reaffirmed by Iran's Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, in a message to Muslim pilgrims making the annual pilgrimage to Mecca . Additionally, the Revolutionary Guards have declared that the death sentence on him is still valid. Iran has rejected requests to withdraw the fatwa on the basis that only the person who issued it may withdraw it, with Ruhollah Khomeini having died in 1989. On 14 February 2006,

14157-619: Was released by Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of Palestine with the message that it "would take revenge against" all institutions and organisations that insulted in one way or another "members of the Prophet Mohammed's family". Khomeini's fatwa was condemned across the Western world by governments on the grounds that it violated the universal human rights of free speech , freedom of religion , and that Khomeini had no right to condemn to death

14278-527: Was staffed by prostitutes with the same names as Muhammad's wives , who are viewed by Muslims as "the Mothers of all Believers". Other issues many Muslims have found offensive include Abraham being called a "bastard" for casting Hagar and Ishmael in the desert; and a character named Salman the Persian who serves as one of the Prophet's scribes, an apparent reference to the story, controversial among Muslims, of

14399-472: Was that British Muslims were not allowed to carry out the fatwa themselves in order to avoid violating the law of a land in which they are a minority, and that only outside Muslims had an obligation to carry out the fatwa. After Siddiqui's death in 1996, however, his successor Ghayasuddin Siddiqui renewed support for the fatwa. His support for the fatwa continued, even after the President of Iran said his government would not pursue -- though also not withdraw --

14520-435: Was the very chaos that the Internet is. The strength of the Internet is chaos." Just as the strength of the Internet is chaos, so that strength of our liberty depends upon the chaos and cacophony of the unfettered speech the First Amendment protects. The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression for

14641-599: Was thus forced to live under police protection for the next nine years. On 7 March 1989, the United Kingdom and Iran broke diplomatic relations over the Rushdie controversy. On 18 February, Iran's President Ali Khamenei (who would later that year succeed Khomeini as Supreme Leader) suggested that if Rushdie "apologises and disowns the book, people may forgive him". Following this, Rushdie issued "a carefully worded statement", saying: I recognize that Muslims in many parts of

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