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59-635: The Muscovy Company traces its roots to the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands (in full: "Mystery and Company of Merchant Adventurers for the Discovery of Regions, Dominions, Islands, and Places unknown") founded in 1551 by Richard Chancellor , Sebastian Cabot and Sir Hugh Willoughby , who decided to look for the Northeast Passage to China . The first expedition of the Company of Merchant Adventurers

118-574: A citizen or denizen of this realme, by themselues, their factor or factors" other than by the order, agreement, consent and ratification of the Fellowship, on penalty of the forfeit ipso facto of their ships and goods so trafficking, half to the Crown and half to the Fellowship. Established merchants of York, Boston, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Hull who were already continually involved in such trade and were invested before 25 December 1567 were to be accounted free of

177-448: A dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F). Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach 70 °C (158 °F) in the summer, but the skin stays at 40 °C (104 °F). Aquatic mammals , conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping

236-418: A different type of hair. Down hair (also known as underfur , undercoat , underhair or ground hair ) is the bottom – or inner – layer, composed of wavy or curly hairs with no straight portions or sharp points. Down hairs, which are also flat, tend to be the shortest and most numerous in the coat. Thermoregulation is the principal function of the down hair, which insulates

295-609: A good market for his English wool , and receiving furs and other Russian continental goods in return. When he returned to England in 1554, he had letters from the Tsar with him, inviting English traders and promising trade privileges. The Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands was rechartered as the Muscovy Company by Mary I of England in 1555, and in the same year Chancellor left for Russia again. The Muscovy Company became an important diplomatic link between Muscovy and England, and

354-419: A layer of dry air next to the skin. The awn hair can be thought of as a hybrid, bridging the gap between the distinctly different characteristics of down and guard hairs. Awn hairs begin their growth much like guard hairs, but less than halfway to their full length, awn hairs start to grow thin and wavy like down hair. The proximal part of the awn hair assists in thermoregulation (like the down hair), whereas

413-602: A marriage prospect, providing a possible refuge for him if he was forced to flee the country. The negotiations yielded no results, and Ivan IV was soon forced to sign a ceasefire (1570) with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1571, the company's right to free trade and navigation down the Volga was revoked by Ivan IV, who had been offended by English demands to close Russian trade to other European nations. Jenkinson returned to Moscow in 1572 in an attempt to restore

472-446: A new Charter of Incorporation to confirm the Company's privileges. This Charter, which was confirmed by Act of Parliament, reincorporated the Company as "The Fellowship of English Merchants for the Discovery of New Trades". Having referred to Mary's Charter of 1555, this continues: "Since the making of which letters patents, the said fellowship haue, to their exceeding great costes, losses and expences, not onely by their trading into

531-555: A royal charter was prepared for their company under King Edward in 1553, making Sebastian Cabot its Governor. However the King died before the charter could receive the Seal . The circumstances are described at the opening of the Charter of 1566: "divers very good Subiects of this Realme of England in the latter end of the reigne of the late right high and mightie prince our Soueraigne Lord king Edward

590-477: Is a thick growth of hair that covers the skin of almost all mammals . It consists of a combination of oily guard hair on top and thick underfur beneath. The guard hair keeps moisture from reaching the skin; the underfur acts as an insulating blanket that keeps the animal warm. The fur of mammals has many uses: protection, sensory purposes, waterproofing, and camouflaging, with the primary usage being thermoregulation. The types of hair include Hair length

649-417: Is driven largely by camouflage. Differences in female and male coat color may indicate nutrition and hormone levels, important in mate selection. Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution . The green coloration of sloths, however,

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708-453: Is negligible in thermoregulation, as some tropical mammals, such as sloths, have the same fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the muskox has guard hairs measuring 30 cm (12 in) as well as

767-445: Is the result of a symbiotic relationship with algae. Coat color is sometimes sexually dimorphic , as in many primate species . Coat color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected. Mammals with darker colored coats can absorb more heat from solar radiation and stay warmer; some smaller mammals, such as voles , have darker fur in the winter. The white, pigmentless fur of arctic mammals, such as

826-723: The Bona Confidentia and Bona Esperanza rejoined, rounded North Cape and sailed east to Novaya Zemlya . The Edward Bonaventure likewise sailed around North Cape and along the Kola Peninsula , entering the White Sea in August. On 24 August 1553, Chancellor cast anchor near the mouth of the Dvina River and was met by local Russians. While his crew wintered over near present-day Arkhangelsk , Chancellor travelled overland to Moscow, where he

885-662: The Bona Esperanza under Willoughby, the Edward Bonaventure under Chancellor and the Bona Confidentia . The fleet departed from London on 10 May 1553, but near the Lofoten islands a storm hit the ships and separated Chancellor's vessel from the other two. Willoughby eventually crossed the Barents Sea and reached Novaya Zemlya . He spent some time sailing along the coast, then turned south towards Scandinavia . However at

944-619: The Northeast Passage , this time led by Steven Borough . He managed to sail through the Kara Gates , the strait between the islands of Vaygach and Novaya Zemlya in the Arctic Ocean . In 1607 and 1608, the company sent Henry Hudson in two separate voyages in an attempt to find the Northeast Passage. Both voyages were unsuccessful. In 1646, Tsar Alexei I rescinded the exemption of the Muscovy Company from Russian customs, in response to

1003-664: The Russian Revolution of 1917 and has since operated mainly as a charity. St. Andrew's and the company headquarters (called the Old English Yard ), were built during the reign of Ivan IV, and are not far from the Moscow Kremlin . In 1994 they were visited by Queen Elizabeth II . Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands The Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands was an early joint stock association, which began with private exploration and enterprise, and

1062-670: The Sphynx cat . Similarly, there are some breeds of hairless dogs . Other examples of artificially selected hairless animals include the hairless guinea-pig , nude mouse , and the hairless rat . Fur has long served as a source of clothing for humans, including Neanderthals . Historically, it was worn for its insulating quality, with aesthetics becoming a factor over time. Pelts were worn in or out, depending on their characteristics and desired use. Today fur and trim used in garments may be dyed bright colors or to mimic exotic animal patterns, or shorn close like velvet . The term "a fur" may connote

1121-479: The White Sea , where the local fishermen were amazed by the great size of his Western-built ship. He reached the harbour of Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery on the Northern Dvina river (near the present-day Arkhangelsk , which would be eventually founded in 1584 to service the growing trade). The region had just recently been added to Muscovy, and when Tsar Ivan IV heard of Chancellor's arrival, he immediately invited

1180-499: The distal part can shed water (like the guard hair). The awn hair's thin basal portion does not allow the amount of piloerection that the stiffer guard hairs are capable of. Mammals with well-developed down and guard hairs also usually have large numbers of awn hairs, which may even sometimes be the bulk of the visible coat. Guard hair ( overhair ) is the top—or outer—layer of the coat. Guard hairs are longer, generally coarser, and have nearly straight shafts that protrude through

1239-542: The fur industry as a furbearer . The use of fur as clothing or decoration is controversial; animal welfare advocates object to the trapping and killing of wildlife, and the confinement and killing of animals on fur farms . The modern mammalian fur arrangement is known to have occurred as far back as docodonts , haramiyidans and eutriconodonts , with specimens of Castorocauda , Megaconus and Spinolestes preserving compound follicles with both guard hair and underfur. Fur may consist of three layers, each with

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1298-473: The Company under its Governor, Sebastian Cabot ("the chiefest setter forth of this iourney or voyage"), with four Consuls, Sir George Barne , William Garrard , Anthony Hussey and John Southcote , with 24 Assistants named from among the principal Adventurers, its many named investors becoming the Fellowship. The Fellowship was to meet annually to elect one or two Governors and 28 of 'the most sad, discreete and honest persons' of their fellowship as Assistants to

1357-466: The Company was led by Willoughby seeking the Northeast Passage to China. Three ships were outfitted and crewed for the expedition, which departed from London's Deptford Docks on 11 May 1553. Willoughby was aboard the Bona Esperanza (120 tons), with Richard Chancellor in command of the Edward Bonaventure (60 tons) and Bona Confidentia (90 tons). The ships became separated in a storm in the North Sea :

1416-563: The Fellowship and bound by its statutes. At this time Sir William Garrard and Sir William Chester were its Governors. It continued to be referred to as the Muscovy Company. Further English ventures led to the creation of the Levant Company in 1581, the Venice Company in 1583, East India Company in 1600, Virginia Company in 1609, and the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670. Fur Fur

1475-696: The Governor or Governors, of whom four were to be chosen Consuls. This became known (for short) as the "Muscovy Company" or Russia Company, and its members the Merchants of Muscovy or Merchants of Russia. The Company sent Richard Chancellor again to the White Sea in 1555, in the Edward Bonaventura and the Philip and Mary , where he learnt of the fate of Willoughby and spent 1556 in further exploration and negotiations with

1534-580: The Household), John Earl of Bedford (Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal), William Earl of Pembroke , and William Lord Howard of Effingham (Lord High Admiral of England), who with others "Haue at their own aduenture, costs and charges, prouided, rigged and tackled certaine ships, pinnesses and other meete vessels, and the same furnished with all things necessary haue advanced and set forward, for to discouer, descrie, and find, Isles..." (etc.) The Charter constituted

1593-641: The Muscovy Company's prior benefits. In the meantime, Dutch merchants replaced the English as the dominant traders in Russia. Nevertheless, the company held a monopoly on English-Russian trade until 1698, when it lost its privileges due to political opposition. The Company helped provide churches and Anglican ministers at various times in Arkhangelsk, Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kronstadt, such as St. Andrew's Anglican Church, Moscow . The Company continued in existence until

1652-555: The Scottish coast, his ship was caught in a sudden storm and shipwrecked. Chancellor drowned, but Nepeya managed to reach the coast, where he was taken hostage by the Scots for a few months before they allowed him to travel on to London. Anthony Jenkinson succeeded Chancellor as the main trader of the Muscovy Company. Jenkinson made two important voyages himself — one trying to reach Cathay overland from Moscow, eventually stopping at Bukhara ;

1711-603: The Subiects of the sayd late king not commonly by seas frequented: and after that Almightie God [...] called to his mercie the said king, who died before the finishing and sealing of his most ample and gracious letters of priuiledges promised to the sayd Subiects..." The purpose of the Company was to seek a new, northern trade route to Cathay (China) and the Spice Islands (the Moluccas , now part of Indonesia). The first expedition of

1770-562: The Tsar. Having recovered and refitted the Bona Esperanza and Bona Confidentia , he set out to return, taking with him the first Russian Ambassador to England, Osip Gregorjevitsch Nepeya. Three of the ships attempted to overwinter at Trondheim , where both of Willoughby's ships were lost, the Philip and Mary arriving in London in April 1557. Chancellor's ship went ahead but in November 1556 foundered off

1829-431: The black-and-white pelage of many mammals which are able to defend themselves, such as in the foul-smelling skunk and the powerful and aggressive honey badger . In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox ( Vulpes lagopus ), collared lemming ( Dicrostonyx groenlandicus ), stoat ( Mustela erminea ), and snowshoe hare ( Lepus americanus ), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter

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1888-527: The cheefest Cities of the Empire of Persia: wherein the Companie of Moscovie Marchants to the perpetual honor of their Citie, and societie, have performed more than any one, yea than all the nations of Europe besides." Queen Elizabeth I granted the Muscovy Company a monopoly charter on whaling in 1577. The primary and most profitable whaling grounds of this joint-stock company came to be centered around Spitsbergen in

1947-544: The company's alleged support of the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War . After the execution of Charles I of England in 1648, Alexei I expelled English merchants from Russia altogether, except from Arkhangelsk . While the restoration of Charles II of England in 1660 resulted in a temporary thaw of relations between England and Russia, a 1664 embassy under Andrew Marvell proved unsuccessful in restoring

2006-578: The company's privileges, a task at which he was largely successful. However, a cooling of Anglo-Russian relations was evident. This unease between the Muscovy Company and Russia continued to the end of the sixteenth century, under the anti-English dominated courts of Fyodor Ivanovich and Boris Godunov . At the end of the 16th century, Richard Hakluyt wrote: "... the notable and strange journey of Master Jenkinson to Boghar in Bactria. Whereunto thou maist adde sixe of our voyages eleven hundred verstes up against

2065-494: The early 17th century, and the company's royal charter of 1613 granted a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen, based on the (erroneous) claim that Hugh Willoughby had discovered the land in 1553. Initially the English tried to drive away competitors, but after a few years, they claimed rights only to the waters south of these Arctic islands. Shortly after Chancellor's death in 1556, the Muscovy Company sent another voyage to discover

2124-636: The east coast of Scotland near Pitsligo , and Chancellor was drowned. Nepeya however was rescued, and was conducted by Viscount Montagu to London, where in March 1557 he was met by a grand procession led by Sir Thomas Offley , Lord Mayor, and conducted through the City to his appointed lodging. Here during the months of March and April he was fêted by the City Companies, and with the exchange of royal gifts he returned safely to Moscow. In 1566 Queen Elizabeth I issued

2183-404: The exotic guest to visit Moscow for an audience at the royal court. Chancellor made the journey of over 600 miles (970 km) to Moscow through snow- and ice-covered country. He found Moscow large (much larger than London) and primitively built, almost all being made out of wood only. However, the palace of the Tsar was very luxurious, as were the dinners he offered Chancellor. The Russian Tsar

2242-418: The gene HR can lead to complete hair loss , though this is not typical in humans. At times, when a hairless domesticated animal is discovered, usually owing to a naturally occurring genetic mutation, humans may intentionally inbreed those hairless individuals and, after multiple generations, artificially create hairless breeds. There are several breeds of hairless cats, perhaps the most commonly known being

2301-592: The great benefite and commodities of the same." It continues to explain that there has since arisen unlicensed trade: "divers subiects of this realme... minding for their peculiar gaine, vtterly to decay the trade of the said fellowship, haue contrary to the tenor of the same letters patents, in great disorder traded into the dominions of the said mightie prince of Russia, &c., to the great detriment of this common wealth:" and therefore, that in future no part of these places "shall be sailed or traffiqued vnto, visited, frequented or haunted by any person being or that shalbe

2360-476: The largest extant terrestrial mammals, the elephant and the rhinoceros , are largely hairless. The hairless bat is mostly hairless but does have short bristly hairs around its neck, on its front toes, and around the throat sac, along with fine hairs on the head and tail membrane. Most hairless animals cannot go in the sun for long periods of time, or stay in the cold for too long. Marsupials are born hairless and grow out fur later in development. Humans are

2419-421: The layer of softer down hair. The distal end of the guard hair is the visible layer of most mammal coats. This layer has the most marked pigmentation and gloss , manifesting as coat markings that are adapted for camouflage or display. Guard hair repels water and blocks sunlight, protecting the undercoat and skin in wet or aquatic habitats, and from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. Guard hairs can also reduce

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2478-455: The mouth of the Varzina River on the coast to the east of present-day Murmansk the ship became trapped in ice. Willoughby and his crew were found a few years later by Russian fishermen who stumbled across the ship frozen in ice. Forcing entry into the ship, they found the bodies of Willoughby and his men frozen solid. It has been assumed that the men froze after a cold Russian winter aboard

2537-476: The only primate species that have undergone significant hair loss. The hairlessness of humans compared to related species may be due to loss of functionality in the pseudogene KRTHAP1 (which helps produce keratin ) Although the researchers dated the mutation to 240 000 ya, both the Altai Neandertal and Denisovan peoples possessed the loss-of-function mutation, indicating it is much older. Mutations in

2596-538: The other, between 1562 and 1579 to establish overland trade routes through Russia to Persia . Although Jenkinson verified that the overland route to Persia was a viable one, it was abandoned in 1573 due to difficulties in the region; the route did not reopen until Parliament reinstated the company's right to the route in 1741. In 1567, when Muscovy was faring badly in the Livonian War (1558–1583), Tsar Ivan IV asked Jenkinson to sound out Queen Elizabeth I of England as

2655-591: The polar bear, may reflect more solar radiation directly onto the skin. The term pelage  – first known use in English c.  1828 (French, from Middle French, from poil for 'hair', from Old French peilss , from Latin pilus ) – is sometimes used to refer to an animal's complete coat . The term fur is also used to refer to animal pelts that have been processed into leather with their hair still attached. The words fur or furry are also used, more casually, to refer to hair-like growths or formations, particularly when

2714-542: The said dominions of the said mightie prince of Russia, &c., found out conuenient way to saile into the saide dominions: but also passing thorow the same, and ouer the Caspian sea, haue discouered very commodious trades into Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, Persia, and other dominions in Asia minor, hoping by Gods grace to discouer also the country of Cathaia, and other regions uery conuenient to be traded into by merchants of this realme, for

2773-717: The severity of cuts or scratches to the skin. Many mammals, such as the domestic dog and cat, have a pilomotor reflex that raises their guard hairs as part of a threat display when agitated. Hair is one of the defining characteristics of mammals; however, several species or breeds have considerably reduced amounts of fur. These are often called "naked" or "hairless". Some mammals naturally have reduced amounts of fur. Some semiaquatic or aquatic mammals such as cetaceans , pinnipeds and hippopotamuses have evolved hairlessness, presumably to reduce resistance through water. The naked mole-rat has evolved hairlessness, perhaps as an adaptation to their subterranean lifestyle. Two of

2832-479: The ship, however, Willoughby and his men were well supplied for a winter aboard a ship – they had supplies of food enough for a journey meant for Asia and they had many woollen garments meant for trading in any destination they might have ended up in. It has therefore been posited by historians that Willoughby and his crew died not from exposure to the elements, but from carbon monoxide poisoning. The surrounding bay would have had ample supplies of sea coal and it

2891-486: The sixt, at the gracious incouragement and right good liking of the said king, and by his Maiesties liberall example, did at their aduenture, and to their exceeding great charges, and for the glory of God, the honor and increase of the reuenues of the Crowne, and the common vtilitie of the whole Realme of England, set forth three ships for the discoverie by sea, of Iles, lands, territories, dominions and Seigniories vnknowen, and by

2950-413: The skin dry. Mammalian coats are colored for a variety of reasons, the major selective pressures including camouflage , sexual selection , communication, and physiological processes such as temperature regulation. Camouflage is a powerful influence in many mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. Aposematism , warning off possible predators, is the most likely explanation of

3009-454: The streame of Dwina to the towne of Vologhda thence one hundred and fourescore verstes by land to Yeraslaue standing upon the mighty river of Volga: there hence above two thousand and five hundred versts downe the streame to the ancient marte Towne of Astracan , and so to the manifolde mouthes of Volga, and from thence also by ship over the Caspian sea into Media, and further then that also with Camels unto Georgia, Armenia, Hyrcania, Gillan, and

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3068-410: The subject being referred to exhibits a dense coat of fine, soft "hairs". If layered, rather than grown as a single coat , it may consist of short down hairs, long guard hairs , and in some cases, medium awn hairs . Mammals with reduced amounts of fur are often called "naked", as with the naked mole-rat , or "hairless", as with hairless dogs . An animal with commercially valuable fur is known within

3127-441: Was especially valued by the isolated Muscovy. Upon his arrival to the court of Ivan IV, Chancellor secured a number of privileges within Russia for the company, including free passage, control of English settlement, and freedom from arrest. When Chancellor set sail for England one year later in 1556, he was joined by the first Russian ambassador to England, Osip Nepeya . However at this juncture Chancellor's luck finally ran out. Off

3186-457: Was led by Willoughby, who was chosen for his military leadership skills after esteemed service against the Scots defending English castles in the north of the country. He had no prior nautical or navigational experience and it was hoped he would transition into naval life with the same aplomb he showed on land. Chancellor would function as the navigator of the small fleet, which consisted of three ships:

3245-425: Was likely that men would have been sent out to gather material to keep them warm, and any combustion of sea coal in an enclosed area could easily have led to their deaths in a small ship hold. At any rate, Willoughby sent out scouts in various directions with the instruction to return after three days travelling if they had not found any human contact. All of these journeys failed. Chancellor was luckier. He penetrated

3304-583: Was pleased to open the sea trade routes with England and other countries, as Russia did not yet have a safe connection with the Baltic Sea at the time and almost all of the area was contested by the neighbouring powers of Lithuania , Poland , and the Sweden . In addition, the Hanseatic League had a monopoly on the trade between Russia and Central and Western Europe . Chancellor was no less optimistic, finding

3363-565: Was received by Tsar Ivan the Terrible . Willoughby's two ships turned back from Novaya Zemlya in September and attempted to winter over on the coast of Lapland . Every crew member soon died from cold and hunger. Chancellor returned to the White Sea in March 1554 and arrived back in London in the autumn, bearing a letter from Tsar Ivan to the English king, welcoming trade between the two Christian nations. By this time King Edward had died and Queen Mary

3422-719: Was ruling in England. In 1555 the Company received its formal royal approbation in a Charter of Incorporation issued under the date 6 February 1554/5 (but long afterwards amended to 26 February) by King Philip and Queen Mary , of which the full name was "The Marchants Adventurers of England for the Discovery of Lands, Territories, Iles, Dominions and Seigniories Unknowen, and Not before that Late Adventure or Enterprise by Sea or Navigation Commonly Frequented" as one body and perpetual Fellowship and Commonalty. The promoters of this Charter are headed by William Marquess of Winchester (Lord high Treasurer), Henry Earl of Arundel (Lord Steward of

3481-505: Was to have been incorporated by King Edward VI in 1553, but received its full royal charter in 1555. It led to the commencement of English trade with Russia, Persia and elsewhere, and became known informally, and later formally, as the Muscovy Company . The Company was formed in London in about 1551 by Richard Chancellor , Sebastian Cabot and Sir Hugh Willoughby . Some 240 adventurers (investors ) purchased shares at £25 each and

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