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82-608: The gwageo ( Korean :  과거 ) or kwagŏ were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea . Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese classics . The form of writing varied from literature to proposals on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law etc. These were

164-619: A "classics licentiate" (or saengwon ) and others for a "literary licentiate" (or jinsa ). After passing these lower examinations ( saengjin-gwa ), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the entrance examinations for the Gukjagam of Goryeo. In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including shi poetry, fu rhyming prose, piao documentary prose, and ts'e problem-essays. The classics licentiate tested knowledge of

246-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with

328-477: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this

410-406: A frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon. The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for

492-457: A large scale; the silver currency was instead used continuously until the end of the dynasty, mainly by the nobles. In the years 1109, 1110, 1117 and 1120, Goryeo was hit by famine, epidemics and several natural disasters. To respond to the damage caused and social changes, including the emergency of displaced farmers, the government reorganized the local administration, taxation and labor system, implementing agricultural promotion policies such as

574-541: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,

656-399: A means of breaking the hold which a few powerful families held over the government. Throughout the dynasty, they retained this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. In fact, any member of

738-432: A position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the chungin class of hereditary technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to members of the lowest class (the cheonmin ). The gwageo provided a basis for various forms of regionalism . Due to

820-454: A position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of rank. The examination system was spread to Goryeo in 957 by a visiting Hanlin scholar named Shuang Ji from Later Zhou . Gwangjong was highly pleased with Shuang Ji and requested that he remain at the Korean court permanently. The examinations were established in 958, during the reign of Gwangjong as

902-513: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding

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984-515: A special clerical title, beginning with daeseon , or "monk designate." Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations ( 文科 ; mun-gwa ), military examinations ( 武科 ; mugwa ), and miscellaneous examinations ( 雜科 ; japgwa ) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during

1066-409: A test of classical knowledge ( myeonggyeong eop ). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of

1148-512: A total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with Hwanghae and Yeongan sending only 10 while Gyeongsang sent 30). Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section,

1230-603: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from

1312-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to

1394-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean

1476-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be

1558-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with

1640-534: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by

1722-716: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on

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1804-511: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which

1886-523: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By

1968-404: The gwageo and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed the gwageo . Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state. The first national examinations were administered in

2050-470: The yangin freeborn class was permitted to take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and cheonmin were excluded. However, over time government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo and Gukjagam lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies . The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test ( jesul eop ), and

2132-481: The Four Books and Five Classics from an orthodox Neo-Confucian interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces. The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and

2214-570: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and

2296-557: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,

2378-444: The byeolsi (special examinations) held on other special occasions. However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial singneonsi examinations. The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test ( chosi ) administered in

2460-526: The singnyeonsi ( 식년시 ). However, the singnyeonsi became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the gwageo on special occasions. These included the alseongsi (visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the Seonggyungwan royal academy, the jeunggwangsi (augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and

2542-868: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea

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2624-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )

2706-513: The Goryeo period, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank. In theory, anyone other than nobi could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking

2788-524: The Jurchens in two battles that ended in defeats. The main cause was identified in the composition of the Korean army, whose strength was the infantry, against the enemy's cavalry; it was therefore reorganized into the Byeolmuban army ( 별무반 ; 別武班 ) to prepare for a large-scale war, which, however, did not take place due to the death of Sukjong. Goryeo and Jurchen maintained peaceful relations, but, after

2870-452: The Mugwa the first time due to falling off his horse during this phase, at which point he applied a hasty tourniquet using willow branches, and finishing his mounted archery portion is well known. The miscellaneous examinations, or japgwa , were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and others), and recordkeeping. These examinations were overseen by

2952-476: The Song emperor sent some ambassadors and two priests to Goryeo to instruct the people on Taoism, and that same year Yejong began the seven-year long construction of the country's first Taoist temple, Bogwongung ( 복원궁 ; 福源宮 ). He also renovated existing temples and religious institutions, and maintained cordial relations with the Confucian scholar, later a Taoist hermit, Kwak Yeo (1058–1130), often inviting him to

3034-446: The area, and measures were implemented to prevent the Jurchens from moving into the territory and finding supplies, but, due to incorrect geographic information, the Goryeo army found itself trapped in the forts and surrounded by the enemy. The Jurchens asked that the nine forts be handed over and that a peace agreement be reached, and in May 1109 Yejong decided to accept, considering that in

3116-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,

3198-467: The candidates showed their understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude. Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these;

3280-548: The capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages. The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to

3362-562: The cultivation of military lands ( 군인전 ; 軍人田 ; gun-injeon ) and abandoned lands. In 1112, the Hyeminguk ( 혜민국 ; 惠民局 ) was born for the free distribution of medicines to the poor, and in 1113 the Yeuisangjeongso ( 예의상정소 ; 禮儀詳定所 ; lit.  Court of etiquette) was established to define new rules for clothing, etiquette and document management. In the latter period of his reign, Yejong focused on strengthening

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3444-502: The decline of Liao's power, also signaled by the fact that Liao no longer collected tributes after 1054. Following the defeat to the Jurchens, Goryeo cultivated its relations with Song, while taking a neutral stance between Jurchens and Liao. In 1114 Yejong sent a request to Huizong asking for Chinese musical instruments to be sent to his palace in Gaeseong , so that he could conduct Confucian rituals. Huizong, apparently misunderstanding

3526-508: The dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination. The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye , on the model of the examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty . The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian interpretations of the classics. Military examinations were established briefly under

3608-419: The exam. Gwageo examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because a yangban family that did not produce a government official for four generations lost their status as yangban. When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in

3690-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in

3772-542: The government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices. In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four in which the Joseon court maintained interpreters: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the Bureau of Interpreters , which maintained interpreters in

3854-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains

3936-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it

4018-635: The kingdom of Silla beginning in 788, after the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn submitted the Ten Urgent Points of Reform to Queen Jinseong , the ruler of Silla at the time. However, due to Silla's entrenched bone rank system , which dictated that appointments be made on the basis of birth, these examinations did not have a strong effect on the government. Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached

4100-618: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or

4182-466: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until

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4264-451: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to

4346-586: The later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae . Many of the later Silhak scholars also turned away from state service. The gwageo were finally abolished in the Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )

4428-462: The meantime the Korean territory had been hit by famine and disease. Goryeo agreed to pay tribute to the Jurchens and withdrew all troops. From 994, Goryeo had been a tributary state of Khitan Liao , which was a dominant power in the region, and had consequently adopted its calendar and its official era names . As not to antagonize Liao, the relations with Song China had been conducted discreetly, but were resumed in 1062, and more frequently, with

4510-599: The nine forts to the Jurchens, Yejong introduced to Gukjagam , the National Academy, seven courses of study based on the Five Classics , the Rites of Zhou , and military studies. In 1116, he created academic institutions and libraries such as Cheongyeongak ( 청연각 ; 淸讌閣 ) and Bomungak ( 보문각 ; 寶文閣 ), and in 1119 he established the scholarship foundation Yanghyeongo ( 양현고 ; 養賢庫 ; lit.  Foundation for

4592-494: The palace and others to each provincial division down to the hyeon level. Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed this examination became known as chungin . The gwageo were supplemented in

4674-444: The palace, asking for advice and exchanging poems. Sukjong had introduced the use of bronze coins and a silver currency called eunbyeong ( 은병 ; 銀甁 ). As soon as he ascended the throne, Yejong had to confront the opposing bureaucracy, which still adhered to a barter economy and taxation in kind established by the dynasty's founder Taejo , popular sentiments and the underdevelopment of markets. The sovereign tried to defend

4756-670: The period of mourning, Yejong decided to continue his father's work: when, in October 1107, the news that the Jurchens had invaded the North-Eastern border arrived to the court, an army of 170,000 men was mobilized, led by General Yun Kwan (1040–1111). Within two months, Yun occupied the Hamhŭng plains and advanced into the Tumen basin; in April 1108, they completed the construction of nine forts to control

4838-498: The period. In 1117, the Goryeo army advanced to Ŭiju area at the Yalu River , reconquered the territory and established new military headquarters there. That same year, Taizu sent an ambassador with a letter to Yejong asking to be recognized as "elder brother". Majority of the officials opposed this request and even considered beheading the envoy, but in the end it was decided not to answer. In July 1109, two months after yielding

4920-507: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by

5002-425: The position of the crown prince Wang Hae. Mindful of what happened with his father Sukjong, who had ascended the throne by carrying out a coup d'état against the eleven-year-old King Heonjong , he considered the need to support the crown prince with a strong power to prevent the situation from happening again, should the prince became king at an early age. He therefore chose Yi Cha-gyŏm , his maternal relative, who led

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5084-457: The primary route for most people to achieve positions in the bureaucracy. Based on the civil service examinations of imperial China, the gwageo first arose in Unified Silla , gained importance in Goryeo, and were the centerpiece of most education in the Joseon dynasty . The tutelage provided at the hyanggyo , seowon , and Sungkyunkwan was aimed primarily at preparing students for

5166-406: The provinces, a second examination ( hoesi ) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination ( jeonsi ) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced , with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score ( jangwon ) in the literary examination

5248-432: The reign of Jungjong of Joseon (1506–1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo . The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" ( hyeollanggwa ). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity. The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in

5330-428: The reign of Yejong , and again in the reign of Gongyang just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period. Miscellaneous examinations ( jabeop ) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received

5412-443: The remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important. This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed. The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass

5494-527: The request, sent a set of musical instruments to be used for royal banquet music. The gift included 167 instruments and 20 volumes of music and performance instructions. The following year, the Jurchen leader Wanyan Aguda proclaimed the establishment of the Jin dynasty with himself as its first emperor, Taizu. Liao asked Goryeo for help, but the request was refused because the view of the majority of Yejong's officials

5576-436: The second stage, in which the successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the Confucian canon and certain classics of military thought. Of importance were Sun Tzu's Art of War, as well as Hanbizi and Wuzi . The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on practical military skills. These include horsemanship, and mounted archery. The story of Yi Sunshin failing

5658-420: The second stage. Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces 10 candidates each. The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary skills and knowledge. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, focused on Korean archery but

5740-660: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting

5822-515: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Yejong of Goryeo Yejong was born Wang U in 1079, the thirty-third year of his grandfather King Munjong 's reign. He was the eldest son of King Sukjong , who took the throne in 1095 after a coup against King Heonjong , and of Queen Myeongui. He was made crown prince in 1100, aged 21, and became king in 1105 when Sukjong died returning from Jangnak Palace in Seogyeong. As soon as he ascended

5904-539: The strength of regional factions in Joseon Dynasty politics , scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of Pyongan , and the small county of Chŏngju came to produce more successful candidates than any other county. The gwageo were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as

5986-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at

6068-762: The throne, Yejong found himself having to face the conflict with the Jurchens that broke out during his father's reign. By the end of the eleventh century , the Wanyan tribe had begun to gain more power, leading to a fluctuation in the balances in Northeast Asia, and increasingly unstable relations with Goryeo, although they were initially part of Balhae in Manchuria and northern Korea's territories, and traced their descent from Goguryeo , referring to Goryeo as "father and mother country" and having particularly close contacts with its court. During Sukjong's reign, Goryeo had faced

6150-400: The training of talents). Although interested in education and culture already upon his accession to the throne, the sovereign identified several advantages in this policy: firstly, government education had long since been outclassed by the prosperity of private schools, but the reform introduced by Yejong gave way to a turnaround that continued into the reign of his successor; moreover, it

6232-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ

6314-469: The use of the currency by noting that Liao had also introduced it, but the ministers brought the Ten Injunctions of Taejo in support of their reasons, stating that the founder had warned against adopting foreign customs and traditions. Yejong replied that Taejo's warning was directed at extravagant and unnecessary spending, and insisted on the monetary policy, but ultimately the coins failed to spread on

6396-579: Was a way to strengthen his own authority, damaged by the failure against the Jurchens. Yejong had an interest in Buddhism and Taoism , and supported them throughout his reign, also being guided by geomancy in pursuing the royal building policies. The boundaries between religious beliefs were blurred: in 1106 the king officiated a Taoist ritual in honor of the Supreme Being and at the same time offered sacrifices to King Taejo asking for rain. In 1110,

6478-404: Was declined, and Yejong warned Huizong not to deal with the Jurchen, because they "were like tigers and wolves". Trade and official contacts continued: in 1117 Song established a special office to deal with Goryeo merchants and envoys; furthermore, a large Chinese mission arrived in 1122, including the Confucian scholar Xu Jing (1091–1153), whose notes are an important source of information about

6560-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of

6642-427: Was given a post of the 6th junior ( jong ) rank. If the jangwon was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. The candidates with second and third highest scores were given posts of the 7th junior rank. The rest were not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked. Testing procedures were

6724-461: Was that the Jurchen were going to emerge victorious and the Liao would fall soon. In 1116 a large embassy was dispatched to the Song court, while the second gift of musical instruments, consisting of 428 pieces had arrived, as well as ritual dance accessories and manuals, starting Korea's tradition of aak . Together with the gifts came a request to bring the Jurchen representatives to the Song court. It

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