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90-662: Mountain ranges are of strategic importance since they often act as a natural border and may also be the origin of a water source such as the Golan Heights . Attacking a prepared enemy position in mountain terrain generally requires a greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers than a war conducted on level ground. Mountains present natural hazards such as lightning , strong gusts of wind, rockfalls , avalanches , snowpacks , ice , extreme cold , and glaciers with their crevasses ; in these ways, it can be similar to cold-weather warfare . The generally uneven terrain and

180-643: A Caucasus Campaign aimed at retaking Kars and the port of Batum . From the point of view of the Central Powers, a campaign in the Caucasus would have a distracting effect on Russian forces. The immediate strategic goal of the Caucasus Campaign was to retake Artvin , Ardahan , Kars, and the port of Batum. As a longer-term goal, head of the Ottoman war ministry İsmail Enver hoped a success would facilitate opening

270-463: A cavalry regiment on 27 December, occupied Selim station and destroyed the Sarikamish-Kars railway from there. On the same day, Stange Bey, who had an infantry regiment and Special Organization irregulars under his command, captured Ardahan, which was defended by three battalions of the 3rd Plaston Brigade (2,000 soldiers). On December 24, Nasuhi Bey, chief of staff of the X Corps, was captured by

360-494: A cavalry regiment, 34 cannons and several score of machine guns under commander of 1st Plastun Brigade General Przevalski. Muratoff says that Russian force defending Sarıkamish has increased to 13–14.000 soldiers., 30th and 31st Divisions took on task of attacking Sarıkamish as the IX Corps number decreased to 1000 soldiers. According to the sources, the 30th and 31st Divisions were around 2000 soldiers, too. Although 93rd Regiment of

450-453: A certain point below, parallel to themselves. This would force the attackers to retreat, to continue under fire, or to attempt to climb the mountain another way. The tactic could be planned in advance, or employed by a retreating force. Another tactic utilised was the 'ascending platoon attack'. Attackers would scout higher enemy positions from the ground, aided by bad weather or poor visibility. A light machine gun team would open fire towards

540-401: A commander-in-chief in his place. General Yudenich appointed to command 2nd Turkestan Corps and six battalions of 1st Caucasus Corps while remaining forces were commanded by General Bergmann. So many frictions broke out between General Bergmann and Yudenich for this appointment. For this reason, just after the victory was won (January 5, 1915), General Bergmann was dismissed and General Yudenich

630-455: A fierce offensive until evening. Turkish commanders persuaded Enver Pasha to stop the attack, which was made as a result of Enver's excessive insistence. Russian sources claimed that if this offensive had continued, Sarıkamish would have fallen. On the other hand, Turk sources claimed Turkish army had suffered heavy casualties as a result of Enver Pasha's offensive orders described in short " attack without considering casualties", and in addition,

720-626: A half battalions of Frontier Guards. The six battalions of the 3rd Kuban Plastun Brigade were echeloned along the coast of the Black Sea. (e) Detachment in Persian Azerbaijan: 2nd Caucasian Rifle Brigade, 4th Caucasian Cossack Division, total: 8 battalions, 24 sotni, 24 guns under General Chernozubov. The garrison of Kars composed of the 263rd Infantry Regiment (of 66th Division): 4 battalions. The Russian Caucasian Army in Battle of Sarikamish, which

810-481: A landscape border, usually motivated by demarcating treaty -designated political boundaries, goes against nature by modifying the borderland's natural geography. For one, China's Song Dynasty built an extensive defensive forest in its northern border to thwart the nomadic Khitan people . In Chapter IV of his 1916 book The New Europe: Essays in Reconstruction , British historian Arnold J. Toynbee criticized

900-936: A major policy goal for a number of states. For example, the Roman Republic , and later, the Roman Empire expanded continuously until it reached certain natural borders: first the Alps , later the Rhine river, the Danube river and the Sahara desert. From the Middle Ages onwards until the 19th century, France sought to expand its borders towards the Alps, the Pyrenees , and the Rhine River. Natural borders can be

990-471: A severe snowstorm. On 24 December, General Vorontsov sent his deputy General Myshlayevsky and chief of staff General Yudenich with officers to meet with General Bergmann in Micingirt (now İnkaya). Bergmann said that an offensive on Istomin's detachment only had local significance, as Istomin would repel and retake Oltu from Turks once his troops were reinforced by 3rd Caucasus Rifle Brigade. He also said that on

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1080-510: A snowstorm. According to İlden, 10.000 soldiers died from frostbite in the Allahu Ekber Mountains. Number of these two divisions decreased to 3200 when they got off from Allahu Ekber on night of 26 December. X Corps lost 90% of troops before engaging in a major battle. Hafız Hakkı thought number of soldiers can be increased to 10.000 in two days from deserted soldiers, therefore he decided to continue offensive. On morning of 26 December,

1170-611: A source of territorial disputes when they shift. One such example is the Rio Grande , which defines part of the border between the United States and Mexico , whose movement has led to multiple conflicts . Natural borders are not to be confused with landscape borders, which are also geographical features that demarcate political boundaries. Although landscape borders, like natural borders, also take forms of forests, water bodies, and mountains, they are manmade instead of natural. Installing

1260-605: A spectator". However, on 18 November, Hasan İzzet Pasha telegraphed Enver Pasha: IX Corps, X Corps' pioneers would arrive on the Kötek-Kars road in eight to nine days, meanwhile it is doubtful that the XI Corps, left alone, would not be crushed. When the pioneers come out of the great mountains, they will be in a difficult position against the enemy, who are not less than themselves. I see the outcome of this offensive field battle as doubtful according to our preparation. In case of failure,

1350-424: A strong Turkish force. Therefore, Myshlayevsky changed his order of the day and issued a new order, rejecting Bergmann's offensive aims and accepting Yudenich's defensive idea. On night of 24 December, Enver and his headquarters (Bronsart Pasha , Feldmann Bey and Colonel Guse, all of which were German officers) reached Bardız village from Narman in 14 hours on horseback. He declared that the IX Corps should attack

1440-796: A while. Russia viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front , which enjoyed the major share of Russian resources. Russia had taken the fortress of Kars from the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War in 1877 , when it was incorporated into the militarily administered Kars Oblast . After the Ottoman Empire entered the war in October 1914 on the side of the Central Powers , Russia now feared

1530-506: Is a periantarctic island , and the conflict took place during the southern winter and so Alpine conditions prevailed almost down to sea level. The operation (codenamed Operation Paraquet ) was unusual in that it combined aspects of long-range amphibious warfare , arctic warfare and mountain warfare. It involved several ships, special forces troops and helicopters . Throughout history but especially since 1979, many mountain warfare operations have taken place throughout Afghanistan . Since

1620-454: Is arduous and in many countries the exclusive preserve of elite units such as special forces or commandos , which as part of their remit should have the ability to fight in difficult terrain such as the Royal Marines . Regular units may also occasionally undertake training of this nature. Natural border A natural border is a border between states or their subdivisions which

1710-799: Is concomitant with natural formations such as rivers or mountain ranges . The "doctrine of natural boundaries" developed in Western culture in the 18th century being based upon the "natural" ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and developing concepts of nationalism . The similar concept in China developed earlier from natural zones of control. Natural borders have historically been strategically useful because they are easily defended . Natural borders remain meaningful in modern warfare even though military technology and engineering have somewhat reduced their strategic value. Expanding until natural borders are reached, and maintaining those borders once conquered, have been

1800-545: The Caucasus campaign . The battle resulted in a Russian victory. The Ottomans employed a strategy which demanded highly mobile troops, capable of arriving at specified objectives at precise times. This approach was based both on German and Napoleonic tactics. The Ottoman troops, ill-prepared for winter conditions, suffered major casualties in the Allahuekber Mountains . Around 25,000 Ottoman soldiers froze to death before

1890-565: The Hindu Kush back to India. Mountain warfare came to the fore once again during World War I , when some of the nations that were involved in the war had mountain divisions that had not been tested. The Austro-Hungarian defence repelled Italian attacks by taking advantage of the terrain in the Julian Alps and the Dolomites , where frostbite and avalanches proved deadlier than bullets. During

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1980-473: The Sarikamish railway, since captive soldiers said that Sarikamish was defended by only 2-3 scratch companies. He asked IX Corps commander Ali İhsan Paşa for his opinion. Ali İhsan Paşa said that "... According to this (The 17th and 28th divisions could not reach Bardız yet), it means that the IX Corps has no forces at hand for now, other than the 29th Division. I do not know the operational requirements concerning

2070-443: The US military adopted a hybrid style of mountain warfare incorporating counterinsurgency (COIN) theory in which the population is paramount as the center of gravity in the fight. In counterinsurgency, seizing and holding territory are less important than avoiding civilian casualties. The primary goals of counterinsurgency are to secure the backing of the populace and thereby to legitimize

2160-852: The Vosges Mountains in 1871 but during World War I , some Germans began to advocate for even more western natural borders—specifically ones that extend all of the way up to Calais and the English Channel —conveniently justifying the permanent German retention of those Belgian and French territories that Germany had just conquered during World War I. As an alternative to the idea of natural borders, Toynbee proposes making free trade, partnership, and cooperation between various countries with interconnected economies considerably easier so that there would be less need for countries to expand even further—whether to their natural borders or otherwise. In addition, Toynbee advocated making national borders based more on

2250-452: The coalition invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, they have been primarily in the eastern provinces of Kunar and Nuristan . Kunar and eastern Nuristan are strategic terrain since the area constitutes a major infiltration route into Afghanistan, and insurgents can enter the provinces from any number of places along the border with Pakistan to gain access to a vast network of river valleys. In that part of Afghanistan ( Regional Command East ),

2340-506: The 11th Corps alone on January 2. Attack of the 32nd Division and the 82nd Regiment, which lasted for four days, was able to be repelled by five Turkestan battalions with six battalions of reinforcements. 32nd Division and 82nd Regiment, which started the attack with 7000 soldiers, decreased to 500 soldiers on 30 December due to snowstorm and desertion of soldiers. Number of IX Corps in Sarıkamish had decreased to 1000 soldiers. Number of X Corps

2430-454: The 29th Division moved to Sarikamish. The path was covered with 30 cm of snow. The 29th Division reached Kızılkilise village 8 kilometers northwest of Sarikamish. The 29th Division prepared to bivouac in Kızılkilise. However, Enver Pasha ordered an attack on Bardız Pass and to capture Sarikamish, behind Bardız Pass. On the evening of 25 December, two regiments of the 29th Division, under

2520-483: The 30th and 32nd Division from the west. The 32rd Division opened dense artillery and rifle fire on the 31st Division, thinking the 32nd Division was Russian troops. The battle continued for 2 hours, and General Istomin withdrew his army with few losses from Oltu. İlden, based on information from a friend who fought in the battle, claimed that the Turks suffered 2.000 casualties in this accidental battle. However, when Fahri Belen asked multiple multiple officers on duty during

2610-558: The 31st Division attacked İd (now, Narman). On both sides, the Russians retreated cautiously after rearguard battle. Istomin's Brigade retreated around Oltu Town. The 31st Division spent the night in Narman (Now Rus Narmanı in Turkish), 15 kilometers South of Oltu. On 23 December, the 31st Division captured 750 soldiers and Colonel Kutatedza with 2 guns. The 31st Division attacked Oltu from the south and

2700-575: The 31st Division managed to enter Sarıkamish with 600 soldiers with night attack on 29 December, it had to retreat from Sarikamish due to dispersal of the soldiers in town and attack of the superior Russian forces. The soldiers who had captured the barracks in Sarıkamish were also taken prisoner by the Russian soldiers besieging the barracks on morning of 30 December. On December 30, Russians brought six mortars from Mecingirt and started hitting Turkish positions with them. Colonel Bukretov could not take Turks in

2790-535: The 3rd army as he couldn't persuade Hasan İzzet Pasha. Enver Pasha's chief of staff Bronsart von Schellendorf and operation department manager (in Turkish: Harekat Şubesi Müdürü ) Major Feldmann continued their service in the 3rd army under Enver Pasha. The war zone was nearly 1,250–1,500 kilometers (780–930 miles) wide from the Black Sea to Lake Van , which made military concentration difficult. The operation

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2880-790: The 66th Division in Kars and the newly formed 3rd Caucasian Rifle Brigade (8 battalions) and the Siberian Cossack Brigade (12 sotni) in Tbilisi, which totaled 14,000 soldiers brought as reinforcement in the Battle of Sarikamish. Apart from these forces, 12 battalions of Russian troops were in Batumi and its surroundings, 8 battalions and 30 cavalry companies were in Ağrı , 8 battalions and 24 cavalry companies were in Iranian Azerbaijan and did not participate in

2970-511: The Caucasian heights was the high mountain passes in which lay the cities Kars and Sarikamish. Beyond, the upper valleys of the Aras River and Euphrates extended westward. Everywhere else the roads were mere tracks which were impenetrable to artillery. The forces were concentrated about 80 kilometres (50 mi) on each side of the border at the fortresses of Kars on the Russian side and Erzurum on

3060-458: The Erzurum Fortress totaling 118,000. The total manpower including transportation units, deport regiments, and military police was 200,000. There were 73 machine guns and 218 (it was equal to Russians ) artillery pieces. Ottoman forces were inadequately prepared for the campaign. IX and X Corps began a long trek with no winter clothing and only dry bread and olives for rations. XI Corps left at

3150-648: The Italian Peninsula. The Roman government was complacent because the Alps were viewed as a secure natural obstacle to would-be invaders. In December 218 BC, the Carthaginian forces defeated Roman troops, in the north, with the use of elephants. Many elephants did not survive the cold weather and disease typical of the European climate. Hannibal's army fought Roman troops in Italy for 15 years but failed to conquer Rome. Carthage

3240-848: The Ottoman navy's bombardment of the Russian ports of Novorossiysk, Odessa and Sevastopol in the Black Sea . High Command expected the Russian Army to cross the Ottoman border at any time. The Bergmann Offensive (November 2, 1914 – November 16, 1914) ended with the defeat of Russian troops under Bergmann. Turks reinforced their Caucasian 3rd Army (50,000 soldiers) with 10th Corps (40,000 fresh troops) after partial victory in Bergmann Offensive, and they correctly estimated that Russian Caucasian Army did not get any reinforcement other than Plastun brigades (11 Battalions) and 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 infantry battalions: 700 soldiers per battalion. 12 Cavalry Squadron: 130 cavalry per battalion. ). Before devising

3330-742: The Ottoman side. The 3rd Army, under the command of Enver, was composed of the IX, X and XI Corps. A detachment unit (1 infantry regiment and the Special Organization (Teşkilat-I Mahsusa) volunteers) known as Ştanke Bey Müfrezesi under the command of the German Lieutenant Colonel Stange embarked Artvin to reinforce the offense and pin down the Russians. The fighting power of 90,000 regular troops (Russian Sarikamish detachment consisted of 60,000 infantry, 4,000 Cavalry (Cossacks), 14,000 Reserves totaling 78,000 soldiers), reserves, and personnel from

3420-475: The Russians. A copy of the attack order given by Enver Pasha was found on Nasuhi Bey. The Russian commanders understood from this order that the Turkish forces attacking Sarikamish were the IX and X Corps General Myslayesvki, who knew that he could not stop two corps with weak Russian forces defending Sarikamish, was sure that if the Russian army did not withdraw, it would be destroyed. However, General Msylayevski

3510-891: The Sarikamish Offensive, Chief of staff of 9th Corps Şerif İlden estimated Russian army as 60,000 soldiers fitting information of 64.000 soldiers given by Paul Muratoff. 9th and 10th Corps of Turkish 3rd Army consisted of well-trained soldiers but Ottoman Army was poorly equipped with winter clothes. Casualties in Ottoman Army from frostbite is recorded as extremely high in Ottoman Sources though any particular number isn't given. Big part of 50–60,000 non-combat losses of Ottomans stems from frostbite and typhus epidemic while Russians lost 6.000 soldiers from frostbite and another 12,000 patient from typhus, war injuries and typhus . Another reason for greater number of non-combat loss of Ottomans

3600-495: The Sarikamish garrison was reinforced by the 80th Kabardinsky Regiment (4 infantry battalions, one thousand infantry per battalion) and Zaporojski Cossack Regiment (6 cavalry divisions). With this reinforcement, the Russian force defending Sarikamish increased to 10.000 soldiers supported by weak artillery. On Turkish side, after the 26 December offensive was stopped, deserters dispersed into forests were tried to be gathered and only on

3690-502: The Sarikamish-Kars line opposite of the initially planned Kars-Kötek line. This change of path caused 40 kilometers lengthening between the X Corps and the 30th and 31st Divisions. On 23 December, the 39th Division attacked the Turkish XI Corps and captured a large number of prisoners. On 22–24 December, the IX Corps reached Bardız village from Toygarlı village. The IX Corps didn't engage in combat like The X Corps, except to disperse

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3780-552: The Turkish side every day. The number of soldiers who died in the hospital was more than 10 thousand, and yet more soldiers died from frostbite and a Typhus epidemic outside the hospitals as well. Turk soldiers used to not go hospitals because they knew they had a greater chance of survival outside the hospitals. In the farthest left flank, Hafız Hakkı with X Corps, numbering 40.000 fresh troops, attacked General Istomin's Brigade (8.000 infantry, 1.000 cavalry) on 22 December. The 30th and 32nd Divisions attacked Kaleboğazı, west of Oltu, and

3870-511: The XI Corps remained inactive against the Russian forces from the beginning to the end of the battle. The plan of the Russians was to stay on the defensive against the XI Corps, to pull the forces against XI Corps to Sarıkamish and to protect Sarıkamish against Turks with these forces. On 28 December, 155th Kubinski Regiment (four battalions) and 1st Plastun Brigade (five battalions) arrived in Sarıkamish from Yudenich's front. Therefore, Russian force in Sarıkamish increased to 20 infantry battalions,

3960-725: The afternoon of 26 December, 83rd and 84th Regiments of the 28th Division arrived. This division, too, had lost most of its force on the way, as it had been brought in by forced night marches. Numbers of Turkish troops isn't recorded in Turkish sources. Considering that Turks had 3,000 soldiers on 26 December, it can be estimated that there would not be more than 5,000 soldiers on 27 December. Enver Pasha renewed his "attack without considering casualties" decree for 27 December. 29th Division managed to enter Upper Sarikamish Village (in Turkish sources, Çerkezköy (Circassianvillage)) at midday. Colonel Bukretov counterattacked to village and encircled Turkish soldiers in village. Meanwhile, Hafız Hakkı Bey sent

4050-432: The army, by using the Sarikamish-Kars railway. 5 Turkestan battalions appointed by Yudenich attacked towards Bardız and defeated the 82nd Regiment of the 28th Division, which was defending the Çakırtepe hills, with a bayonet charge. Observing this, the 32nd Division Commander Lieutenant Colonel Abdülkerim Bey gave up the idea of moving to Sarikamish and went to battle against Turkestan battalions. On evening of December 26,

4140-418: The army. It is said that there is no information from the X Corps. If your aim can be realized with the strength of a division tomorrow, the 29th Division is ready for action and command.“ Bronsart Pasha and Major Feldman also stated that they agreed with İhsan Pasha's opinion. After 3 days of marching, the IX Corps needed rest. Communication between the 9th and 10th Corps was cut after the X Corps deviated from

4230-482: The battle about casualties, he received different answers from each officer, although the maximum amount of loss was said to be 250. In next days, 250 Russian soldiers, 4 guns, and 4 machine guns got captured by the X Corps. By midday, Istomin had evacuated Oltu. Hafız Hakkı allowed soldiers to pillage the town in order to raise their morale. The Turks lost provisions that could feed Turks army for days due to this pillage. Following this, Hafız turned X Corps' direction to

4320-399: The battles of Sarikamish. The Turks, on the other hand, had put forward all their troops (90,000 soldiers, 218 guns) in order to get a decided result in the battle. Another advantage of the Russians was that all of the Russian soldiers were equipped with winter clothes, and their medical organization was much better than the Turks. From the beginning of the war, 500 soldiers died in hospitals on

4410-1420: The beginning of the war consisted of 100 infantry battalions (100 thousand infantry), 117 cavalry companies (15 thousand cavalry) and 256 cannons: (a) Erzurum - Kars : 39th Infantry Division (16 battalions, 48 guns) and one brigade of 20th Infantry Division (24 battalions, each battalion has 1250-1300 soldiers), 1 Caucasian Cossack Division, 6 of 5 battalions 1st Plastun Brigade (each battalion has 600-800 soldiers), total: 29 battalions, 30 sotni and 96 guns, 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 battalions, 42 guns, each battalion has 600-800 soldiers like Plaston Brigades, it reached Battlefield on 16 November). (b) Erzurum - Oltu : one brigade of 20th Infantry Division, one Cossack (cavalry) regiment (6 sotni), total: 8 battalions, 6 sotni, 24 guns (Erzurum-Kars aka Sarikamish detachment borrowed 6 guns from Oltu detachment considering each Russian battalions 3 guns, Cossack divisions had 12 horsed guns, Plastuns (infantry Cossacks) had no guns. Both group under General Bergman in command of I Caucasian Army Corps.). (c) Erevan - Bayazit : one brigade of 66th Division (8 battalions), 2nd Kuban Plastun Brigade (6 battalions), 2nd Caucasian Cossack Division, Transcaspian Cossack Brigade, total: 14 battalions, 36 sotni, 52 guns. (d) Batum region: 264th Infantry Regiment (of 66th Division), 1 of 6 1st Kuban Plastun Brigade (6 battalions), total: 5 battalions with 8 guns-to which were added one and

4500-466: The best way for the Russians to withdraw is the Sarikamish-Kars railway. General Myshlayevski and Bergmann panicked at the encirclement maneuver of the Turks and had already admitted defeat. Since the Karakurt-Kağızman road was not suitable for the passage of wheeled vehicles, it was not possible to withdraw from this road. That's why General Myshlayevski thought to save the army, or at least a part of

4590-430: The commander of the division and officers overcame frostbite by covering themselves in oilcloth together. The situation of soldiers was naturally more difficult. As for the X Corps, Hafız Hakkı pursued Istomin's brigade for two days, the 24–25 December. Istomin gradually retreated, engaging in a successful distraction battle. Istomin retreated to Merdenek (now Göle ) village. Eventually, the 30th and 31st Divisions reached

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4680-471: The concept of natural borders. Specifically, Toynbee criticized this concept as providing a justification for launching additional wars so that countries can attain their natural borders. Toynbee also pointed out how once a country attained one set of natural borders, it could subsequently aim to attain another, further set of natural borders; for instance, the German Empire set its western natural border at

4770-596: The divisions climbed mountains surpassing 5000 meters in height. The Caucasian War was a 19th century military conflict between the Russian Empire and various peoples of the North Caucasus who resisted subjugation during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus . The first British invasion of Afghanistan ended in 1842, when 16,000 British soldiers and camp followers were killed as they retreated from Kabul through

4860-473: The front, also was in same situation. The Russians sent the 2nd and 3rd Caucasian and 1st Turkestan Corps to the Western front to reinforce this front. Therefore, the Russian Caucasian Army consisted of the 1st Caucasian Corps (32 battalions), 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 battalions), 3 Plastun brigades (18 battalions), the 66th Division (16 battalions) and some independent detachments. The Russian force at

4950-459: The government, rather than to focus on militarily defeating the insurgents. Counterinsurgency doctrine has proved difficult to implement in Kunar and Nuristan. In the sparsely-populated mountain regions of eastern Afghanistan, strategists have argued for holding the high ground, a tenet of classical mountain warfare. The argument suggests that if the counterinsurgent does not deny the enemy the high ground,

5040-577: The high enemy position from a distance, offering cover for the remaining soldiers to gradually advance. Since the Partition of India in 1947, India and Pakistan have been in conflict over the Kashmir region . They have fought two wars and numerous additional skirmishes or border conflicts in the region. Kashmir is located in the Himalayas , the highest mountain range in the world. The first hostilities between

5130-451: The initial plan by entering Oltu-Ardahan road in pursuit of Istomin's unit. Therefore, the commanders under Enver Pasha suggested waiting in Bardız until the X Corps reached their map objective. Enver Pasha, on the other hand, thought that if Sarikamish, where the railway passed, was captured, the Russians would have no way to retreat and would surrender themselves. On the morning of 25 December,

5220-497: The insurgents can attack at will. In Kunar and Nuristan, US forces continued to pursue a hybrid style of counterinsurgency warfare, with its focus on winning hearts and minds , and mountain warfare, with the US forces seizing and holding the high ground. The expense of training mountain troops precludes them from being on the order of battle of most armies except those that reasonably expect to fight in such terrain. Mountain warfare training

5310-452: The left flank, X (40,000 soldiers) under Colonel Hafız Hakkı and IX Corps (28,000 soldiers) under brigadier Ali İhsan Pasha would reach Kötek (30 kilometers southwest of Sarikamish), 15 kilometers northeast of main Russian Army numbered 50,000, and drive the Russians to the Aras Valley, where the Russian forces would be destroyed by all three Corps attacking in concert. Hasan İzzet Pasha

5400-655: The long expedition will turn against us. Let's not give a pitched battle and be content with expelling the enemy in Id (Narman). For the future, hope is left for attack and invasion... In sources, Enver Pasha's answer isn't found. Then, Hasan İzzet Pasha telegraphed Enver Pasha again on the evening of 18 December. I ask for forgiveness from my duty as I do not see the strength and confidence in myself to carry out these movements, and I am actually disturbed by an extraordinary nervousness". Enver Pasha returned Köprüköy in order to persuade Hasan İzzet Pasha. He temporarily took command of

5490-421: The main front was unnecessary. He believed that they should stay defensive and reinforce Sarikamish. General Myshlayevsky incorporated both Bergmann and Yudenich's proposals into his order of the day, which was attacking Oltu town for the purpose of retaking it and covering roads to Sarikamish for a possible Turkish attack at the same time. At 11.30 am, Myshlayevsky learned that Bardız village was already occupied by

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5580-408: The main front, the 39th Division should continue a successful offensive. General Yudenich opposed Bergmann's idea. He said that an attack on Istomin's detachment was a signal of the Turks' outflanking maneuver. He claimed that since Turks were encircling their right flank, they should occupy Bardız Village in order to cover the road to Sarikamish where the Russian railway passed, and that an offensive on

5670-408: The morning of 26 December IX Corps had a force of only the size of an infantry regiment, or 3,000 soldiers. Only 29th Division (nine battalions) and four battalions of 17th Division (nine battalions) from the 9th Corps (27 battalions) were able to catch up with 26 December attack. Battalions of 17th Division was 300 soldiers (4 battalion: 1200 soldiers on 26 December), hence it appears that 29th Division

5760-701: The mountains after an attack, which made it challenging for an army of regulars to fight back. In Napoleon Bonaparte 's Italian campaign, Alexander Suvorov 's Italian and Swiss expedition and the 1809 rebellion in Tyrol , mountain warfare played a large role. Another example of mountain warfare was the Crossing of the Andes , which was carried out by the Argentinean Army of the Andes ( Spanish : Ejército de los Andes ), commanded by General José de San Martín in 1817. One of

5850-517: The mountains, where ballistic projectiles have different characteristics than at sea level. Most of the Falklands War took place on hills in semi-Arctic conditions on the Falkland Islands . However, during the opening stage of the war, there was military action on the bleak mountainous island of South Georgia , where a British expedition sought to eject occupying Argentine forces. South Georgia

5940-565: The northern slopes of the Allahuekber Mountains . Hafız Hakkı left a regiment to fight against Istomin's detachment and entered the Allahekber Mountains to cut the Sarıkamış - Kars railway line. The Allahu Ekber track was a rugged and snowcapped path, where soldiers were not able to get off from Allahu Ekber in fewer than 19 hours. In 26 December 02.00 a.m., the 30th and 31st Divisions entered Allahu Ekber Mountain. Two divisions got caught by

6030-428: The number of Sarikamish detachment increased from a scratch 2.000 soldiers to 3.500-4.000 soldiers (1.5000 seasoned soldiers, 1.000 railwaymen, 1.000 militia with some hundreds of volunteers from the rear services). On 26 December, Muratoff claimed that the IX Corps had 10,000 soldiers, but Şerif İlden , chief of staff of 9th Turkish Corps says that after the Turkish army dispersed in the night attack on 25 December, on

6120-442: The number of the Turkish army was less than the Russian troops defending Sarikamish and was very tired after days of marching. On night of 26 December, General Voropanof, commander of the Sarikamish garrison, demanded from General Myshlayevski that the warehouses be destroyed and Sarikamish be abandoned, due to large number of casualties in the garrison. General Myshlayevski stated that Sarikamish should definitely not be left because

6210-450: The orders of Enver Pasha, entered the forest to encircle the Russian troops defending Bardız Pass. Hundreds of soldiers froze to death in the forest filled with ditches and cliffs, reducing the 29th Division's number by 50 percent. Turks took Bardız Pass from 1000 railwaymen at 12:00 p.m.. Only one battalion could pursue the escaping Russian troops due to exhaustion. It could not be successful in its attacks on Sarikamish alone. That night,

6300-429: The other hut surrendered. While the Russians give the number of surrendered soldiers as 300, the Turkish side says this number as 20. Since the number of prisoners taken from the Turks until January 2 was 3,000, it appears that the Russian sources exaggerated the number of prisoners they took. The Russians, who claimed to take 300-400 soldiers every day from the XI Corps alone, should have taken more than 3000 prisoners from

6390-441: The patrolling front guards. The 29th Division captured Bardız from its front guards on night of December 24. As the Russians did not have time to destroy the supplies, there were supplies in Bardız that could feed the corps for days. Enver Pasha set up guards in the supply depots to prevent looting of the village, thus the mistake in Oltu didn't happen. However, on the same day, 40% of the 17th Division's troops became stragglers due to

6480-583: The peaks, ridges and passes of Saltoro with India occupying most of the ridge line whilst Pakistan army to the west along the bases. During the Kargil War (1999), Indian forces sought to flush out opponents who had captured high mountain posts. That proxy war was the only modern war that was fought exclusively in the mountains. After the Kargil War, the Indian Army implemented specialist training on artillery use in

6570-430: The principle of national self-determination —as in, based on which country the people in a particular area or territory actually wanted to live in. Battle of Sarikamish [REDACTED] Russian Empire Russian Caucasus Army The Battle of Sarikamish was an engagement between the Russian and Ottoman empires during World War I . It took place from December 22, 1914, to January 17, 1915, as part of

6660-721: The result was devastating, and Enver lost 86% of his forces. Examples of mountain warfare used during World War II include the Battles of Narvik , Battle of the Caucasus , Kokoda Track campaign , Battle of Attu , Operation Rentier , Operation Gauntlet , Operation Encore , and the British defence at the Battle of Hong Kong . One ambush tactic used against the Germans during the Battles of Narvik utilised hairpin bends . Defenders would position themselves above them and open fire when attackers reached

6750-567: The route to Tbilisi and beyond, which in turn would trigger a revolt of Caucasian Muslims . Another Turkish strategic goal was to cut Russian access to its hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea . The headquarters of the Ottoman 3rd Army was in Erzurum , under the command of Hasan Izzet . On 30 October 1914, the 3rd Army headquarters was informed by High Command in Constantinople about

6840-431: The slow pace of troop and material movements are additional threats to combatants. Movement, reinforcements, and medical evacuation up and down steep slopes and areas in which even pack animals cannot reach involves an enormous exertion of energy. In 218 BC , the Carthaginian army commander Hannibal marched troops, cavalry and African elephants across the Alps in an effort to conquer Rome by approaching it from north of

6930-530: The start of the battle. After the battle, Ottoman Minister of War Enver Pasha , who had planned the Ottoman strategy in Sarikamish, blamed his defeat on the Armenians , and the battle served as a prelude to the Armenian genocide . Some sources estimate the significance of the battle as one of the most important in the company, as a result of which the 3rd army was so defeated that it was forced to stop fighting for

7020-557: The summer of 1918, the Battle of San Matteo took place on the Italian front and was fought at the highest elevation of any during the war. In December 1914, another offensive was launched by the Ottoman supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95,000–190,000 troops against the Russians in the Caucasus . Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter,

7110-846: The two nations, during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 , showed that both were ill-equipped to fight in biting cold, let alone at the highest altitudes in the world. During the Sino-Indian War of 1962, hostilities broke out between India and China in the same area. The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 between India and Pakistan was mainly fought in Kashmir's valleys, rather than the mountains themselves, but several mountain battles took place. Siachen Conflict (along Saltoro Mustgah) has been witness to battles, operations and skirmishes where many posts higher than 5000m have been captured or fought over. The fighting here has been concentrated on

7200-518: The village prisoner due to strong resistance of Turks and fires of other Turkish troops from hills to the north of the Upper Sarikamish for three days. Fire of mortars drove back Turkish troops in hills to north of the Upper Sarikamish. Russians placed the demolition mold they brought from Castle of Kars on the roof of the nearest hut and blew up this hut. All of the Turkish soldiers in the hut were killed. The Turkish soldiers who saw this explosion in

7290-469: Was 1,800 in total (200 soldiers per battalions). According to Ziya Yergök, battalions of 28th Division was 300 soldiers except 82th regiment. These memoirs concurred with Ali İhsan Pasha's (IX Corps commander at that time) interview with the Russian newspaper after his captivity where he stated that he had a total of 6,000 soldiers. Initial strength of IX corps was 28,000 soldiers. 22,000 casualties are made up of fugitives, frosbite and disease. Turks went on

7380-427: Was also around 2000. Therefore, commander of IX Corps, Ali İhsan Pasha, wrote to Enver Pasha in his report that we should abandon offensive and IX Corps could reach 10,000 after 10 days of recovery. Two days later, Hafız Hakkı Pasha also informed Enver Pasha that X Corps could reach 10,000 soldiers by gathering fugitives. While a withdrawal order was expected on 31 December, Enver Pasha's general attack order for X Corps

7470-404: Was appointed as the commander of all forces (it was named as Sarikamish Group since outbreak of war)., It took 29 December for the 30th and 31st Divisions to gather and reach Sarikamish from Başköy-Beyköy. Plan to capture Russian troops, who were thought to have come from Kars, lost one day to the 30th Division. After Russians put an end to their offensive against the XI Corps on 24 December,

7560-490: Was executed at a plateau averaging 1,500–2,000 meters (4,900–6,600 ft) above sea level. The main difficulty with the region was the roads, with the transportation infrastructure on the Ottoman side far from adequate. Russia's main advantage was the Kars Gyumri Akhalkalaki railway line and a terminal at Sarikamish. The railway was 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the border. The only way for an army to get through

7650-458: Was firstly in favor of outflanking maneuver and offensive due to high trust to Enver Paşa and Hasan İzzet Pasha gave the final shape of the outflanking plan. On 17 December, Enver Pasha returned Erzurum after inspecting the army and seeing Hasan İzzet Pasha accepted his plan. In the presence of other officers, Enver Pasha said to Hasan İzzet Pasha "I am going to Erzurum . Either I will go back to Istanbul from there, or I will look at your actions as

7740-505: Was inadequate rear services, logistic and sanitary measures. The war minister, Ismail Enver, devised an operation plan while he was at the Department of War in Istanbul. His strategy was based on German principles copied from Napoleon. Enver's plan involved a single envelopment using three Corps. On the right flank , XI Corps would fix the Russians in place and conduct feint attacks . In

7830-403: Was met with astonishment. Although X Corps was able to penetrate the enemy's first lines in this attack, the last attack towards Sarıkamish, which was withdrawn due to heavy machine gun fire and counter-attacks from the rear lines, also ended in failure. On January 1, IX Corps, which consisted of 900 soldiers, most of whom were wounded and with their hands and feet frozen, was reduced by half due to

7920-599: Was reinforced by Armenian and Georgian volunteers and newly formed 3rd Caucasian Rifle Brigade (8 battalions), numbered around 130 thousand soldiers. In the Bergmann Offensive , the Russian army suffered 7,000 casualties. The Russian Army, which was fighting against the Turk 3rd Army, consisted of 30 battalions of the 1st Caucasus Corps, the 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 battalions) and 11 Plaston battalions totaling 58,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. In addition, there were 4 battalions of

8010-611: Was ultimately defeated by Roman general Scipio Africanus at Zama in North Africa in 202 BC. The term mountain warfare is said to have come about in the Middle Ages after the European monarchies found it difficult to fight the armies of the Old Swiss Confederacy in the Alps. The Swiss fought in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army. Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas , partisans and irregulars, who hid in

8100-531: Was unaware that the number of Turkish troops hastily sent to Sarikamish by forced marches had been reduced by 80%. As a result of Yudenich's insistence, he remained as commander of the Caucasian army until 28 December but news of the fall of Ardahan and cutting of the Sarikamish-Kars railway shook General Myshlayevsky deeply, and thought that he would be captured together with the army. On morning of 28 December, he left Mecingirt riding horses and set off first to Kağızman, then from Gyumri to Tbilisi., He did not appoint

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