Medieval fortification refers to medieval military methods that cover the development of fortification construction and use in Europe , roughly from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance . During this millennium, fortifications changed warfare , and in turn were modified to suit new tactics , weapons and siege techniques.
88-665: The Moorish Castle is the name given to a medieval fortification in Gibraltar comprising various buildings, gates, and fortified walls, with the dominant features being the Tower of Homage and the Gate House. Part of the castle itself also housed the prison of Gibraltar until it was relocated in 2010. The Tower of Homage is clearly visible to all visitors to Gibraltar; not only because of its striking construction, but also because of its dominant and strategic position. Although sometimes compared to
176-537: A besieged castle or fortification. The concept of rivers or harbors coming directly up to the walls of fortifications was especially used by the English as they constructed castles throughout Wales . There is evidence that harbors were fortified, with wooden structures in the water creating a semi-circle around the harbor, or jetties, as seen in an artist's reconstruction of Hedeby, in Denmark, with an opening for ships to access
264-404: A city or fortress that cannot be easily taken by a quick assault, and which refuses to surrender . Sieges involve surrounding the target to block provision of supplies and reinforcement or escape of troops (a tactic known as " investment "). This is typically coupled with attempts to reduce the fortifications by means of siege engines , artillery bombardment, mining (also known as sapping), or
352-428: A city's walls or destroy siege engines with only a single projectile. An exact nature of the walls of a medieval town or city would depend on the resources available for building them, the nature of the terrain, and the perceived threat. In northern Europe , early in the period, walls were likely to have been constructed of wood and proofed against small forces. Especially where stone was readily available for building,
440-417: A defensive weapon, however they were not often used. This is because their missiles sometimes lacked the force to dismantle enemy siege engines and their immobility confined them to the top of a city's towers were they could easily be taken out by enemy catapults, including offensive ballistas which were usually employed for the very reason of dismantling defenses on the top of towers and keeping defenders off of
528-568: A mere twenty-one years, no mean task considering the distances and terrain involved, and the fact that mechanical transport on land was not then in use. The strategic importance of Gibraltar rose in the last years of the Moorish rule, when, after the successful Spanish reconquest of the entire Guadalquivir valley, Gibraltar became one of the key elements in communication between the Emirate of Granada and Moorish domains in northwestern Africa. Construction of
616-419: A minor force could seldom be maintained. A besieging army, encamped in possibly squalid field conditions and dependent on the countryside and its own supply lines for food, could very well be threatened with the disease and starvation intended for the besieged. To end a siege more rapidly, various methods were developed in ancient and medieval times to counter fortifications, and a large variety of siege engines
704-405: A rebellious Anatolian vassal in the 14th century BC ended when the queen mother came out of the city and begged for mercy on behalf of her people. The Hittite campaign against the kingdom of Mitanni in the 14th century BC bypassed the fortified city of Carchemish . If the main objective of a campaign was not the conquest of a particular city, it could simply be passed by. When the main objective of
792-403: A siege might be a surprise attack, attempting to overwhelm the defenders before they were ready or were even aware there was a threat. This was how William de Forz captured Fotheringhay Castle in 1221. The most common practice of siege warfare was to lay siege and just wait for the surrender of the enemies inside or, quite commonly, to coerce someone inside to betray the fortification. During
880-436: A siege progressed, the surrounding army would build earthworks (a line of circumvallation ) to completely encircle their target, preventing food, water, and other supplies from reaching the besieged city. If sufficiently desperate as the siege progressed, defenders and civilians might have been reduced to eating anything vaguely edible – horses, family pets, the leather from shoes, and even each other . The Hittite siege of
968-614: A simple battering ram had come into use in the previous millennium, the Assyrians improved siege warfare and used huge wooden tower-shaped battering rams with archers positioned on top. In ancient China, sieges of city walls (along with naval battles) were portrayed on bronze 'hu' vessels , like those found in Chengdu , Sichuan in 1965, which have been dated to the Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BC). An attacker's first act in
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#17328524000011056-685: A wall and a parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, allowing defenders to throw stones, boiling water, and so forth, upon assailants below. Some castles featured additional inner walls, as additional fortifications from which to mount a defense if outer walls were breached. Any entrance through a wall, being an opening, forms an obvious weak point. To be practical, the entryway would have to accommodate supplies being brought through, yet difficult for attackers to breach. For example, passage over ditches or moats would have to be withdrawn to deny attackers. The use of multiple walls or ditches around an entrance would also make it difficult for defenders to use
1144-507: A wall's battlements . After the invention of cannons near the beginning of 12th century CE, many torsion powered catapults became largely obsolete and cannons became commonplace medieval siege engines by the 15th century. While mostly used for offensive purposes, the first recorded use of a cannon in Europe was to defend the city of Algeciras during the siege of 1343-44. However slow to load, cannons proved to be devastating weapons that could level
1232-454: A wheeled siege ramp with grappling hooks known as the Cloud Bridge (the protractible, folded ramp slinging forward by means of a counterweight with rope and pulley), and wheeled 'hook-carts' used to latch large iron hooks onto the tops of walls to pull them down. When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city, the defenders used large bellows (the type
1320-493: Is a military blockade of a city, or fortress , with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecraft or poliorcetics ) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static, defensive position. Consequently, an opportunity for negotiation between combatants is common, as proximity and fluctuating advantage can encourage diplomacy . A siege occurs when an attacker encounters
1408-433: Is a strong central tower which normally forms the heart of a castle. Often the keep is the most defended area of a castle, and as such may form the main habitation area for a noble or lord, or contain important stores such as the armoury or the main well. Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps. These were steps that had different rise height or tread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up
1496-471: Is by far the longest in Gibraltar's recorded history, having lasted from 711 to 1309 and then again from 1333 to 1462, a total of 727 years. The Moorish conquest of Iberia was led by Tarik ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nusayr , who may have landed in Europe at or near Gibraltar. Gibraltar thus became the stepping-stone to the Moorish conquests of most of Iberia and part of France. This spectacular feat of arms took
1584-421: Is known from Egyptian tomb reliefs of the 24th century BC, showing Egyptian soldiers storming Canaanite town walls on wheeled siege ladders. Later Egyptian temple reliefs of the 13th century BC portray the violent Siege of Dapur , a Syrian city, with soldiers climbing scale ladders supported by archers. Assyrian palace reliefs of the 9th to 7th centuries BC display sieges of several Near Eastern cities. Though
1672-666: Is the highest tower of the period of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula , and the Qasbah of the Castle is the largest in the area. The Castle itself played a prominent part in the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, with Muslim forces overrunning a large portion of it in two years - an invasion which led to Islamic domination of parts of western Europe for more than seven centuries. It
1760-472: Is therefore of historic significance not only for Gibraltar and Iberia , but also for all of western Europe . The present Tower of Homage, and most of what is visible today of the Castle, was rebuilt during the second Moorish period of occupation in the early 14th century, after its near destruction during a reconquest of Gibraltar by the Moors following a re-occupation by Spanish forces from 1309 to 1333. Today
1848-407: Is to build a line of earth-works, consisting of a rampart and trench, surrounding it. During the process of circumvallation, the attacking force can be set upon by another force, an ally of the besieged place, due to the lengthy amount of time required to force it to capitulate. A defensive ring of forts outside the ring of circumvallated forts, called contravallation, is also sometimes used to defend
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#17328524000011936-457: The Huo Long Jing , this manuscript of Jiao Yu recorded an earlier Song-era cast-iron cannon known as the 'flying-cloud thunderclap eruptor' (fei yun pi-li pao). The manuscript stated that ( Wade–Giles spelling): The shells ( phao ) are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of 'magic' gunpowder ( shen huo ). They are sent flying towards
2024-701: The Battle of Alesia , the Roman legions created two huge fortified walls around the city. The inner circumvallation, 16 km (10 mi), held in Vercingetorix 's forces, while the outer contravallation kept relief from reaching them. The Romans held the ground in between the two walls. The besieged Gauls, facing starvation, eventually surrendered after their relief force met defeat against Caesar's auxiliary cavalry. The Sicarii Zealots who defended Masada in AD 73 were defeated by
2112-718: The Indus Valley civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus River floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of Kot Diji were clustered behind massive stone flood dikes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities quarrelled constantly about the control of prime agricultural land. Mundigak (c. 2500 BC) in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun-dried bricks . City walls and fortifications were essential for
2200-685: The Piankhi stela , records how the Nubians laid siege to and conquered several Egyptian cities by using battering rams, archers, and slingers and building causeways across moats. During the Peloponnesian War , one hundred sieges were attempted and fifty-eight ended with the surrender of the besieged area. Alexander the Great 's army successfully besieged many powerful cities during his conquests. Two of his most impressive achievements in siegecraft took place in
2288-520: The Siege of Tyre and the Siege of the Sogdian Rock . His engineers built a causeway that was originally 60 m (200 ft) wide and reached the range of his torsion-powered artillery, while his soldiers pushed siege towers housing stone throwers and light catapults to bombard the city walls. Most conquerors before him had found Tyre , a Phoenician island-city about 1 km (1,100 yd) from
2376-596: The State of Zhao , Handan , founded in 386 BC, also had walls that were 20 m (66 ft) wide at the base; they were 15 m (49 ft) tall, with two separate sides of its rectangular enclosure at a length of 1,400 m (1,530 yd). The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization showed less effort in constructing defences, as did the Minoan civilization on Crete . These civilizations probably relied more on
2464-520: The Vietnam War . Until the invention of gunpowder -based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and mortars and howitzers (in modern times), the traditional methods of defense became less effective against a determined siege. Although there are numerous ancient accounts of cities being sacked, few contain any clues to how this
2552-537: The Yuan dynasty in 1271, was very effective, allowing the Mongols to sweep through large areas. Even if they could not enter some of the more well-fortified cities, they used innovative battle tactics to grab hold of the land and the people: By concentrating on the field armies, the strongholds had to wait. Of course, smaller fortresses, or ones easily surprised, were taken as they came along. This had two effects. First, it cut off
2640-676: The concentric castle from the period of the Crusades —and more dangerous to attackers—witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder-holes , as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances . Arrowslits (also called arrow loops or loopholes), sally ports (airlock-like doors) for sallies and deep water wells were also integral means of resisting siege at this time. Particular attention would be paid to defending entrances, with gates protected by drawbridges , portcullises , and barbicans . Moats and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders. In
2728-470: The early modern period , siege warfare dominated the conduct of war in Europe. Leonardo da Vinci gained some of his renown from design of fortifications. Medieval campaigns were generally designed around a succession of sieges. In the Napoleonic era , increasing use of ever more powerful cannons reduced the value of fortifications. In the 20th century, the significance of the classical siege declined. With
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2816-502: The fortifications of Rhodes in Greece and the fortifications of Famagusta in Cyprus. Just as modern military engineers enhance field fortifications with obstacles such as barbed wire , medieval engineers used a number of obstacle types including abatis , caltrops , cheval de frise , and trou de loup . Siege A siege ( Latin : sedere , lit. 'to sit')
2904-439: The star fort . After the invention of the explosive shell , star forts became obsolete as well. Harbors or some sort of water access were often essential to the construction of medieval fortifications. It was a direct route for trading and fortification. Having direct access to a body of water provided a route for resupply in times of war, an additional method of transportation in times of peace, and potential drinking water for
2992-450: The Chinese commonly used in heating up a blast furnace for smelting cast iron ) to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders. Advances in the prosecution of sieges in ancient and medieval times naturally encouraged the development of a variety of defensive countermeasures. In particular, medieval fortifications became progressively stronger—for example, the advent of
3080-731: The European Middle Ages , virtually all large cities had city walls— Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had citadels , forts , or castles . Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia , similar to those used much later in Vietnam during
3168-550: The Moorish Castle commenced in the 8th century AD (possibly AD 711); the date of its completion is not recorded. Its walls enclosed a considerable area, reaching down from the upper part of the Rock of Gibraltar to the sea. The most conspicuous remaining parts of the Castle are the upper tower, or Tower of Homage, together with various terraces and battlements below it, and the massive Gate House, with its cupola roof. The Tower of Homage
3256-518: The Moorish Castle is one of the major tourist attractions of Gibraltar, and it is shown on the reverse of the 1995 design (still in circulation) of the Gibraltar five-pound banknote . The name "Moorish Castle" (or " El Castillo " in Spanish) is also used locally when referring to the residential area surrounding the Castle, location of the Moorish Castle Estate . Part of the castle itself housed
3344-679: The Roman legions, who built a ramp 100 metres (330 ft) high up to the fortress's west wall. During the Roman–Persian Wars , siege warfare was extensively being used by both sides. In the Middle Ages, the Mongol Empire 's campaign against China (then comprising the Western Xia dynasty , Jin dynasty , and Southern Song dynasty ) by Genghis Khan until Kublai Khan , who eventually established
3432-754: The Southern Song Chinese held out against the enormous barrage of Mongol attacks. Much of this success in defense lay in the world's first use of gunpowder (i.e. with early flamethrowers , grenades , firearms , cannons, and land mines ) to fight back against the Khitans , the Tanguts , the Jurchens , and then the Mongols. The Chinese of the Song period also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed cannonball shells with gunpowder. Written later c. 1350 in
3520-556: The advent of mobile warfare , a single fortified stronghold is no longer as decisive as it once was. While traditional sieges do still occur, they are not as common as they once were due to changes in modes of battle, principally the ease by which huge volumes of destructive power can be directed onto a static target. Modern sieges are more commonly the result of smaller hostage, militant, or extreme resisting arrest situations. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, and defensive walls. Some settlements in
3608-487: The ancient Near East in historical sources and in art, there are very few examples of siege systems that have been found archaeologically. Of the few examples, several are noteworthy: The earliest representations of siege warfare have been dated to the Protodynastic Period of Egypt , c. 3000 BC . These show the symbolic destruction of city walls by divine animals using hoes. The first siege equipment
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3696-519: The attackers from outside. Ancient cities in the Middle East show archaeological evidence of fortified city walls . During the Warring States period of ancient China , there is both textual and archaeological evidence of prolonged sieges and siege machinery used against the defenders of city walls . Siege machinery was also a tradition of the ancient Greco-Roman world . During the Renaissance and
3784-444: The attackers, but made it extremely difficult for attackers to get many arrows back through at the defenders. Sieges were common during the Middle Ages and because of this many cities fortified their walls and castles to defend against the use of siege engines by their attackers . Many cities utilized catapults that would hurl stones and other missiles at enemy siege engines and soldiers. The most commonly used catapult for defense
3872-655: The booty of his conquest undamaged, and retain his men and equipment intact, for the price of a well-placed bribe to a disgruntled gatekeeper. The Assyrian siege of Jerusalem in the 8th century BC came to an end when the Israelites bought them off with gifts and tribute, according to the Assyrian account, or when the Assyrian camp was struck by mass death, according to the Biblical account. Due to logistics, long-lasting sieges involving
3960-468: The campaign had been fulfilled, the Hittite army returned to Carchemish and the city fell after an eight-day siege. Disease was another effective siege weapon, although the attackers were often as vulnerable as the defenders. In some instances, catapults or similar weapons were used to fling diseased animals over city walls in an early example of biological warfare . If all else failed, a besieger could claim
4048-443: The castle. For this reason many castles were built on larger hills, cliffs, close to rivers, lakes or even caves. Materials that were used in the building of castles varied through history. Wood was used for most castles until 1066. They were cheap and were quick to construct. The reason wood fell into disuse as a material is that it is quite flammable. Soon stone became more popular. Stone castles took years to construct depending on
4136-520: The defence of the first cities in the ancient Near East . The walls were built of mudbricks, stone, wood, or a combination of these materials, depending on local availability. They may also have served the dual purpose of showing potential enemies the might of the kingdom. The great walls surrounding the Sumerian city of Uruk gained a widespread reputation. The walls were 9.5 km (5.9 mi) in length, and up to 12 m (39 ft) in height. Later,
4224-458: The defence of their outer borders or sea shores. Unlike the ancient Minoan civilization, the Mycenaean Greeks emphasized the need for fortifications alongside natural defences of mountainous terrain, such as the massive Cyclopean walls built at Mycenae and other adjacent Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–1100 BC) centers of central and southern Greece. Although there are depictions of sieges from
4312-657: The demands on stored food and water. During the Warring States period in China (481–221 BC), warfare lost its honorable, gentlemen's duty that was found in the previous era of the Spring and Autumn period , and became more practical, competitive, cut-throat, and efficient for gaining victory. The Chinese invention of the hand-held, trigger-mechanism crossbow during this period revolutionized warfare, giving greater emphasis to infantry and cavalry and less to traditional chariot warfare. The philosophically pacifist Mohists (followers of
4400-454: The enemy camp from an eruptor ( mu phao ); and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp, the whole place will be set ablaze... During the Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644), the Chinese were very concerned with city planning in regards to gunpowder warfare. The site for constructing the walls and
4488-509: The entrance practically, necessitating better methods of control. Gates came in many forms, from the simple stone buttress and timber blocks, to the massive and imposing stone archways and thick wooden doors most associated with medieval citadels. A killing field was an area between the main wall and a secondary wall, so when the first wall was breached the attackers would run into the killing field to be confronted by another wall from which soldiers bombarded them. Soldiers would be positioned atop
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#17328524000014576-541: The field, he was unable to capture Rome itself. The legionary armies of the Roman Republic and Empire are noted as being particularly skilled and determined in siege warfare. An astonishing number and variety of sieges, for example, formed the core of Julius Caesar 's mid-1st-century BC conquest of Gaul (modern France). In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico ( Commentaries on the Gallic War ), Caesar describes how, at
4664-490: The first night while laying siege to a city, the leader of the Mongol forces would lead from a white tent : if the city surrendered, all would be spared. On the second day, he would use a red tent: if the city surrendered, the men would all be killed, but the rest would be spared. On the third day, he would use a black tent: no quarter would be given. However, the Chinese were not completely defenseless, and from AD 1234 until 1279,
4752-469: The fortification as possible. Provided this was not so unnaturally contrived as to allow an attacker to drain the system, it served two defensive purposes. It made approaching the curtain wall of the castle more difficult and the undermining of the wall virtually impossible. To position a castle on a small island was very favorable from a defensive point of view, although it made deliveries of supplies and building materials more cumbersome and expensive. A keep
4840-403: The fortification's walls, could allow the attackers to fire down upon the defenders and also advance troops to the wall with less danger than using ladders. In addition to launching projectiles at the fortifications or defenders, it was also quite common to attempt to undermine the fortifications, causing them to collapse. This could be accomplished by digging a tunnel beneath the foundations of
4928-495: The front so that attackers would damage their weapons ( swords , axes , etc.) while trying to break through. From the mid-15th century onwards, the power of cannons grew and medieval walls became obsolete as they were too thin to offer any realistic protection against prolonged bombardment . As a consequence of this, medieval walls were often upgraded with the addition of artillery platforms or bastions, and battlements were replaced by thick parapets with embrasures . In many cases,
5016-445: The great hall. Smaller ones had only a watch tower. Construction could sometimes take decades. The string of Welsh castles Edward I of England had built were an exception in that he focused much of the resources of his kingdom on their speedy construction. In addition to paid workers, forced levies of labourers put thousands of men on each site and shortened construction to a few years. Nature could provide very effective defenses for
5104-443: The improbably high numbers which he used for both the Mongols and the defenders do give one a sense of the large numbers of machines used at a single siege. Another Mongol tactic was to use catapults to launch corpses of plague victims into besieged cities. The disease-carrying fleas from the bodies would then infest the city, and the plague would spread, allowing the city to be easily captured, although this transmission mechanism
5192-399: The land. Usually, these wooden structures would have small bases at either end, creating a 'watch' and defense platform. Religion was a central part of the lives of medieval soldiers, and churches , chapels , monasteries , and other buildings of religious function were often included within the walls of any fortification, be it temporary or permanent. A place to conduct religious services
5280-529: The mainland, impregnable. The Macedonians built a mole , a raised spit of earth across the water, by piling stones up on a natural land bridge that extended underwater to the island, and although the Tyrians rallied by sending a fire ship to destroy the towers, and captured the mole in a swarming frenzy, the city eventually fell to the Macedonians after a seven-month siege. In complete contrast to Tyre, Sogdian Rock
5368-472: The medieval period, negotiations would frequently take place during the early part of the siege. An attacker – aware of a prolonged siege's great cost in time, money, and lives – might offer generous terms to a defender who surrendered quickly. The defending troops would be allowed to march away unharmed, often retaining their weapons. However, a garrison commander who was thought to have surrendered too quickly might face execution by his own side for treason. As
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#17328524000015456-495: The medieval walls were dismantled and their stonework, which was still valuable as construction material, was reused in the construction of the new fortifications. The resulting space is often seen in old city centers of Europe even to this day, as broader streets often outline where the old wall once stood (evident for example in Prague and Florence, Italy ). The transition between medieval and early modern fortification can be seen in
5544-458: The medieval walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army, as they were not designed to be strong enough to resist cannon fire. They were sometimes rebuilt, as at Berwick on Tweed , or retained for use against thieves and other threats of a lower order. Very elaborate and complex schemes for town defenses were developed in the Netherlands and France , but these belong mainly to
5632-639: The nearby alcazars in Spain , the Moorish Castle in Gibraltar was constructed by the Marinid dynasty , making it unique in the Iberian Peninsula . Gibraltar has always been of special significance to the numerous peoples and civilizations that have visited or occupied it over the ages, from the Neanderthal period, through the Classical and on to Moorish , Spanish , and the current British rule. The Moorish occupation
5720-454: The overall size of the castle. Stone was stronger and of course much more expensive than wood. Most stone had to be quarried miles away, and then brought to the building site. But with the invention of the cannon and gunpowder, castles soon lost their power. Costs for the walls depended on the material used. Wood would cost very little and was quick to build, but was weak. Stone was strong but very expensive and time-consuming to construct. Work
5808-417: The philosopher Mozi ) of the 5th century BC believed in aiding the defensive warfare of smaller Chinese states against the hostile offensive warfare of larger domineering states. The Mohists were renowned in the smaller states (and the enemies of the larger states) for the inventions of siege machinery to scale or destroy walls. These included traction trebuchet catapults , 8-foot (2.4 m) high ballistas ,
5896-462: The post-medieval periods. By 1600, the medieval wall is likely to have been seen more as a platform for displaying hangings and the pomery as a gathering ground for spectators, or as a source of building stone and a site for its use, respectively. However, a few, such as those of Carcassonne and Dubrovnik , survived fairly well and have been restored to a nearly complete state. Medieval walls that were no longer adequate for defending were succeeded by
5984-428: The principal city from communicating with other cities where they might expect aid. Secondly, refugees from these smaller cities would flee to the last stronghold. The reports from these cities and the streaming hordes of refugees not only reduced the morale of the inhabitants and garrison of the principal city, it also strained their resources. Food and water reserves were taxed by the sudden influx of refugees. Soon, what
6072-404: The prison of Gibraltar until the prison was relocated in 2010. Medieval fortification Towers of medieval castles were usually made of stone, wood or a combination of both (with a stone base supporting a wooden loft). Often toward the later part of the era they included battlements and arrow loops. Arrow loops were vertical slits in the wall through which archers inside shot arrows at
6160-401: The second wall and armed with any variety of weapons, ranging from bows to crossbows to simple rocks. A moat was a common addition to medieval fortifications, and the principal purpose was to simply increase the effective height of the walls and to prevent digging under the walls. In many instances, natural water paths were used as moats, and often extended through ditches to surround as much of
6248-434: The siege was of a location on a coastline, from ships launched from the harbor of the location. The universal method for defending against siege is the use of fortifications, principally walls and ditches , to supplement natural features. A sufficient supply of food and water was also important to defeat the simplest method of siege warfare: starvation . On occasion, the defenders would drive 'surplus' civilians out to reduce
6336-451: The stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress. A typical exterior wooden door might be made out of two or more layers of oak planks. The grain of the wood would run vertically on the front layer and horizontally on the back, like a simple form of plywood . The two layers would be held together by iron studs, and the structure might be strengthened and stiffened with iron bands. The studs themselves were pointed on
6424-615: The thickness of the walls in Beijing's Forbidden City were favoured by the Chinese Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) because they were in pristine position to resist cannon volley and were built thick enough to withstand attacks from cannon fire. For more, see Technology of the Song dynasty . The introduction of gunpowder and the use of cannons brought about a new age in siege warfare. Cannons were first used in Song dynasty China during
6512-410: The trebuchet. The trebuchet’s destructive force caused engineers to thicken walls, round out towers, and to redesign fortifications so that they could employ trebuchets for defense. The Ayyubids between 1196 and 1218 built towers mounted with massive trebuchets, which hypothetically would use their height advantage to take out opposing siege engines. Ballistas were another type of catapult utilized as
6600-401: The use of deception or treachery to bypass defenses. Failing a military outcome, sieges can often be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease, which can afflict either the attacker or defender. This form of siege, though, can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds. The attacking force can circumvallate the besieged place, which
6688-416: The wall"). An external pomoerium, stripped of bushes and building, gave defenders a clear view of what was happening outside and an unobstructed field of shot. An internal pomoerium gave ready access to the rear of the curtain wall to facilitate movement of the garrison to a point of need. By the end of the sixteenth century, the word had developed further in common use, into pomery . Also by that time,
6776-529: The walls of Babylon , reinforced by towers, moats, and ditches, gained a similar reputation. In Anatolia , the Hittites built massive stone walls around their cities atop hillsides, taking advantage of the terrain. In Shang dynasty China, at the site of Ao, large walls were erected in the 15th century BC that had dimensions of 20 m (66 ft) in width at the base and enclosed an area of some 1,900 m (2,100 yd) squared. The ancient Chinese capital for
6864-534: The walls, and then deliberately collapsing or exploding the tunnel. This process is known as mining . The defenders could dig counter-tunnels to cut into the attackers' works and collapse them prematurely. Fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. The Roman Empire used Greek fire , which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish. Combined with a primitive flamethrower , it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon. A sallying out might also occur with such weapons, or if
6952-577: The wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security. This would have been the pattern of events in the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw in England . In many cases, the wall would have had an internal and an external pomoerium . This was a strip of clear ground immediately adjacent the wall. The word is from the late medieval , derived from the classical Latin post murum ("behind
7040-472: Was a raised earth mound, and varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10 feet to 100 feet), and from 30 to 90 metres (98 to 295 ft) in diameter. There was a tower on top of the motte. In most cases, the tower was made of timber, though some were also made of stones. Stone towers were found in natural mounds, as artificial ones were not strong enough to support stone towers. Larger mottes had towers with many rooms, including
7128-634: Was achieved. Some popular tales existed on how the cunning heroes succeeded in their sieges. The best-known is the Trojan Horse of the Trojan War , and a similar story tells how the Canaanite city of Joppa was conquered by the Egyptians in the 15th century BC. The Biblical Book of Joshua contains the story of the miraculous Battle of Jericho . A more detailed historical account from the 8th century BC, called
7216-404: Was captured by stealthy attack. Alexander used commando-like tactics to scale the cliffs and capture the high ground, and the demoralized defenders surrendered. The importance of siege warfare in the ancient period should not be underestimated. One of the contributing causes of Hannibal 's inability to defeat Rome was his lack of siege engines , thus, while he was able to defeat Roman armies in
7304-434: Was developed for use by besieging armies. Ladders could be used to escalade over the defenses. Battering rams and siege hooks could also be used to force through gates or walls, while catapults , ballistae , trebuchets , mangonels , and onagers could be used to launch projectiles to break down a city's fortifications and kill its defenders. A siege tower , a substantial structure built to equal or greater height than
7392-522: Was done by teams of craftsmen assisted by local labor. For larger projects, skilled labor would often be brought in from surrounding areas. The height of walls varied widely by castle, but were often 2.5–6 m (8.2–19.7 ft) thick. They were usually topped with crenellation or parapets that offered protection to defenders. Some also featured machicolations (from the French machicoulis , approximately "neck-crusher") which consisted of openings between
7480-570: Was not known at the time. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the Crimean city of Kaffa (now Feodosiya ) during the Siege of Caffa . It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30%–60% of Europe's population. On
7568-507: Was once a formidable undertaking became easy. The Mongols were then free to lay siege without interference of the field army, as it had been destroyed. At the siege of Aleppo , Hulagu used twenty catapults against the Bab al-Iraq ( Gate of Iraq ) alone. In Jûzjânî, there are several episodes in which the Mongols constructed hundreds of siege machines in order to surpass the number which the defending city possessed. While Jûzjânî surely exaggerated,
7656-401: Was the trebuchet , a torsion powered catapult that dominated the Middle Ages both offensively and defensively. The trebuchet was known for its considerable force but required a longer loading time compared to other siege engines, sometimes taking up to an hour, which lead to some cities using catapults such as the mangonel and onager instead, which could put projectiles downrange much faster than
7744-437: Was usually essential to the morale of the soldiers. Motte-and-bailey was the prevalent form of castle during 11th and 12th centuries. A courtyard (called a bailey) was protected by a ditch and a palisade (strong timber fence). Often the entrance was protected by a lifting bridge, a drawbridge or a timber gate tower. Inside the bailey were stables, workshops, and a chapel. The motte was the final refuge in this type of castle. It
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