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76-469: The Monsanto Company ( / m ɒ n ˈ s æ n t oʊ / ) was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri . Monsanto's best-known product is Roundup , a glyphosate -based herbicide , developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on

152-432: A trophic cascade can occur. PCBs can cause harm to human health or even death when eaten. PCBs can be transported by birds from aquatic sources onto land via feces and carcasses. PCBs undergo xenobiotic biotransformation, a mechanism used to make lipophilic toxins more polar and more easily excreted from the body. The biotransformation is dependent on the number of chlorine atoms present, along with their position on

228-455: A bridge for plastic pollution to be transported from terrestrial environments into marine environments. It has been estimated that 88–95% of marine plastic is exported into the ocean by just 10 major rivers. An organism can accumulate PCBs by consuming other organisms that have previously ingested PCBs from terrestrial, freshwater, or marine environments. The concentration of PCBs within an organism will increase over their lifetime; this process

304-442: A chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide DDT , PCBs , Agent Orange , and recombinant bovine growth hormone . In September 2016, German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$ 66 billion in an all-cash deal. After gaining U.S. and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name Monsanto

380-401: A company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting. Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based Climate Corp for $ 930 million in 2013. Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated. In May 2013,

456-499: A coolant in electric transformers, PCBs still persist in built environments. Some PCBs share a structural similarity and toxic mode of action with dioxins . Other toxic effects such as endocrine disruption (notably blocking of thyroid system functioning) and neurotoxicity are known. The bromine analogues of PCBs are polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), which have analogous applications and environmental concerns. An estimated 1.2 million tons have been produced globally. Though

532-525: A long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products. In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million, and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly & Co , in August for $ 300 million plus "additional contingent consideration". In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $ 210 million Precision Planting Inc. ,

608-454: A new company, the "new Monsanto", focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton. Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia . As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003. In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent

684-565: A pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s. Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the Monsanto Open . In 1974, Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10-year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman , which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were

760-538: A semi-closed application. In contrast, the major open application of PCBs was in carbonless copy ("NCR") paper , which even presently results in paper contamination. Other open applications were lubricating and cutting oils, and as plasticizers in paints and cements, stabilizing additives in flexible PVC coatings of electrical cables and electronic components, pesticide extenders, reactive flame retardants and sealants for caulking , adhesives , wood floor finishes, such as Fabulon and other products of Halowax in

836-458: A significant quantity of PCBs. As the pressure of ocean water increases with depth, PCBs become heavier than water and sink to the deepest ocean trenches where they are concentrated. A small volume of PCBs has been detected throughout the Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere serves as the primary route for global transport of PCBs, particularly for those congeners with one to four chlorine atoms. In

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912-417: A treatment of unwanted PCBs generally requires high heat or catalysis (see Methods of destruction below). PCBs readily penetrate skin , PVC (polyvinyl chloride), and latex (natural rubber). PCB-resistant materials include Viton , polyethylene , polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), butyl rubber , nitrile rubber , and Neoprene . PCBs are derived from biphenyl , which has

988-543: A way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation . This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds. Knowles' team designed the "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"— L‑dopa , which is used to treat Parkinson's disease . In 2001, Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed

1064-456: A worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called March Against Monsanto , was held in over 400 cities. A second protest took place in May 2014. Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival Syngenta for US$ 46.5 billion in 2015, but failed. In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%). Monsanto

1140-402: Is called bioaccumulation. PCB concentrations within an organism also change depending upon which trophic level they occupy. When an organism occupies a high trophic level, like orcas or humans , they will accumulate more PCBs than an organism that occupies a low trophic level, like phytoplankton . If enough organisms with a trophic level are killed due to the accumulation of toxins, like PCB,

1216-474: Is informally referred to as crop dusting, involves spraying crops with crop protection products from an agricultural aircraft . Planting certain types of seed are also included in aerial application. The specific spreading of fertilizer is also known as aerial topdressing in some countries. Many countries have severely limited aerial application of pesticides and other products because of environmental and public health hazards like spray drift ; most notably,

1292-511: Is one of the main drivers of the negative impact of modern industrial agriculture on the environment . Pesticides, because they are toxic chemicals meant to kill pest species , can affect non-target species , such as plants , animals and humans. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Other agrochemicals, such as fertilizers , can also have negative effects on

1368-626: Is performing more functions in the warmer months, it naturally has a faster metabolism and has less PCB accumulation. However, multiple cold-water periods mixed with toxic PCBs with coplanar chlorine molecules can be detrimental to perch health. Enantiomers of chiral compounds have similar chemical and physical properties, but can be metabolized by the body differently. This was looked at in bowhead whales ( Balaena mysticetus ) for two main reasons: they are large animals with slow metabolisms (meaning PCBs will accumulate in fatty tissue) and few studies have measured chiral PCBs in cetaceans. They found that

1444-462: Is still in the worldwide leading position based on sales of year 2019. Based on a statistics by statistica , In 2019, the agrochemical market worldwide was worth approximately $ 234.2 billion. This is expected to increase to more than $ 300 billion in 2025. This agriculture article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Polychlorinated biphenyl Polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) are organochlorine compounds with

1520-530: Is the primary source of PCB contamination in the atmosphere. In the biosphere , PCBs can be degraded by the sun , bacteria or eukaryotes , but the speed of the reaction depends on both the number and the disposition of chlorine atoms in the molecule: less substituted, meta - or para -substituted PCBs undergo biodegradation faster than more substituted congeners. In bacteria, PCBs may be dechlorinated through reductive dechlorination , or oxidized by dioxygenase enzyme. In eukaryotes, PCBs may be oxidized by

1596-431: Is thought to be linked to PCB 77 metabolism, something that was not measured in this study. Temperature plays a key role in the ecology, physiology and metabolism of aquatic species. The rate of PCB metabolism was temperature dependent in yellow perch ( Perca flavescens ). In fall and winter, only 11 out of 72 introduced PCB congeners were excreted and had halflives of more than 1,000 days. During spring and summer when

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1672-606: The Dayton Project , and later Mound Laboratories , and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons . In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which it sold to Lever Brothers in 1957. In 1947, its styrene factory was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster . In 1949, Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds . In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in

1748-861: The European Union banned it outright with a few highly restricted exceptions in 2009, effectively ending the practice in all member states. Many agrochemicals are toxic , and agrichemicals in bulk storage may pose significant environmental and/or health risks, particularly in the event of accidental spills . In many countries, use of agrichemicals is highly regulated. Government-issued permits for purchase and use of approved agrichemicals may be required. Significant penalties can result from misuse, including improper storage resulting in spillage. On farms, proper storage facilities and labeling, emergency clean-up equipment and procedures, and safety equipment and procedures for handling, application and disposal are often subject to mandatory standards and regulations. Usually,

1824-462: The Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983, and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987. It was one of the top-ten U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused

1900-871: The Monsanto process for making acetic acid , which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf (initially ChemGrass). In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam , and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984. In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide . From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were electronic calculators , digital watches and digital clocks. Monsanto became

1976-448: The artificial sweetener saccharin , caffeine and vanillin . Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr , Wales. The venture produced vanillin, aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid , and later rubber processing chemicals. In the 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs . Queeny's son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over

2052-452: The body lice . Agrochemicals were introduced to protect crops from pests and enhance crop yields . The most common agrochemicals include pesticides and fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers in the 1960s were responsible for the beginning of the " Green Revolution ", where using the same surface of land using intensive irrigation and mineral fertilizers such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium has greatly increased food production. Throughout

2128-422: The cytochrome P450 enzyme. Like many lipophilic toxins, PCBs undergo biomagnification and bioaccumulation primarily due to the fact that they are easily retained within organisms. Plastic pollution, specifically microplastics , are a major contributor of PCBs into the biosphere and especially into marine environments. PCBs concentrate in marine environments because freshwater systems, like rivers, act as

2204-628: The "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex. PL Laboratories LKB-produkter AB (Acq 1968) Kabi Vitrum (Acq 1990) Farmitalia (Acq 1993) Upjohn (Merged 1995) Monsanto (Est 1901) Swann Chemical Company (Acq 1935) Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories (Acq 1936) American Viscose (Acq 1949) G. D. Searle & Company (Acq 1985) Agracetus (Acq 1996) DeKalb Genetics Corporation (Acq 1998) Cargill (Seed div, Acq 1998) In 2000, Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into

2280-521: The 1960s, when a host of problems were identified. With the discovery of PCBs' environmental toxicity , and classification as persistent organic pollutants , their production was banned for most uses by United States federal law on January 1, 1978. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) rendered PCBs as definite carcinogens in humans. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), PCBs cause cancer in animals and are probable human carcinogens. Moreover, because of their use as

2356-531: The 1970s through 1980s, pesticide research continued into producing more selective agrochemicals. Due to the adaptation of pests to these chemicals, more and new agrochemicals were being used, causing side effects in the environment. Syngenta was the Chinese owned worldwide leader in agrochemical sales in 2013 at approximately US$ 10.9 billion, followed by Bayer CropScience , BASF , Dow AgroSciences , Monsanto , and then DuPont with about $ 3.6 billion. It

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2432-510: The PCB metabolism in the liver of four sea turtle species (green, olive ridley , loggerhead and hawksbill), green and hawksbill sea turtles have noticeably higher hydroxylation rates of PCB 52 than olive ridley or loggerhead sea turtles. This is because the green and hawksbill sea turtles have higher P450 2-like protein expression. This protein adds three hydroxyl groups to PCB 52, making it more polar and water-soluble. P450 3-like protein expression that

2508-404: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer 's acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002. In 1994, Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin , brand-named Posilac. Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company . In 1996, Monsanto purchased Agracetus ,

2584-448: The U.S., de-dusting agents, waterproofing compounds, casting agents. It was also used as a plasticizer in paints and especially "coal tars" that were used widely to coat water tanks, bridges and other infrastructure pieces. Modern sources include pigments , which may be used in inks for paper or plastic products. PCBs are also still found in old equipment like capacitors, ballasts, X-ray machine, and other e-waste. PCBs have entered

2660-975: The US EPA enforced the federal ban as of 1978, PCBs continued to create health problems in later years through their continued presence in soil and sediment, and from products which were made before 1979. In 1988, Japanese scientists Tanabe et al. estimated 370,000 tons were in the environment globally, and 780,000 tons were present in products, landfills, and dumps or kept in storage. The compounds are pale-yellow viscous liquids . They are hydrophobic, with low water solubilities : 0.0027–0.42  ng /L for Aroclors brand , but they have high solubilities in most organic solvents , oils, and fats . They have low vapor pressures at room temperature. They have dielectric constants of 2.5–2.7, very high thermal conductivity , and high flash points (from 170 to 380 °C). The density varies from 1.182 to 1.566 g/cm . Other physical and chemical properties vary widely across

2736-447: The US, Aroclor 1260 and Aroclor 1254 were the main mixtures used before 1950; Aroclor 1242 was the main mixture used in the 1950s and 1960s until it was phased out in 1971 and replaced by Aroclor 1016. One estimate (2006) suggested that 1 million tonnes of PCBs had been produced. 40% of this material was thought to remain in use. Another estimate put the total global production of PCBs on

2812-476: The United States. Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill malaria -transmitting mosquitoes, but it was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts. In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later. In the mid‑1960s, William Standish Knowles and his team invented

2888-510: The atmosphere, PCBs may be degraded by hydroxyl radicals , or directly by photolysis of carbon–chlorine bonds (even if this is a less important process). Atmospheric concentrations of PCBs tend to be lowest in rural areas, where they are typically in the picogram per cubic meter range, higher in suburban and urban areas, and highest in city centres, where they can reach 1  ng /m or more. In Milwaukee , an atmospheric concentration of 1.9 ng/m has been measured, and this source alone

2964-517: The average PCB concentrations in the blubber were approximately four times higher than the liver; however, this result is most likely age- and sex-dependent. As reproductively active females transferred PCBs and other poisonous substances to the fetus, the PCB concentrations in the blubber were significantly lower than males of the same body length (less than 13 meters). The toxicity of PCBs varies considerably among congeners . The coplanar PCBs, known as nonortho PCBs because they are not substituted at

3040-399: The average daily water temperature was above 20 °C, persistent PCBs had halflives of 67 days. The main excretion processes were fecal egestion, growth dilution and loss across respiratory surfaces. The excretion rate of PCBs matched with the perch's natural bioenergetics , where most of their consumption, respiration and growth rates occur during the late spring and summer. Since the perch

3116-480: The biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991. In 1997, Monsanto divested Solutia , a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production. Monsanto first entered the maize seed business when it purchased 40% of Dekalb in 1996; it purchased

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3192-450: The business of producing PCBs . In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio , to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department. Thomas spent the rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970. In 1943, Thomas

3268-443: The cases, agrochemicals refer to pesticides. Agrochemicals are typically applied to seeds or the field using a variety of different methods. A seed treatment is a treatment of the seed with either chemical agents or biological or by physical methods. Usually done to provide protection to the seed and improve the establishment of healthy crops. Not to be confused with a seed coating. In agriculture and horticulture , coating of

3344-471: The chemicals. Agrochemicals, especially when improperly used or released in local environments, have led to a number of public health and environmental issues. Agrochemicals and their production can be significant environmental pollution . Agrochemicals are responsible for significant damage to waterways through runoff, and inproperly stored agrochemicals and agrochemical wastes are responsible for spills, especially during extreme weather events. Following

3420-452: The class. As the degree of chlorination increases, melting point and lipophilicity increase, and vapour pressure and water solubility decrease. PCBs do not easily break down or degrade, which made them attractive for industries. PCB mixtures are resistant to acids, bases, oxidation, hydrolysis, and temperature change. They can generate extremely toxic dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans through partial oxidation. Intentional degradation as

3496-631: The company in 1928. In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois (now known as Sauget ). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of the responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president. In 1935, Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston, Alabama , and thereby entered

3572-405: The company on biotechnology . Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies. In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents . Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as

3648-414: The easternmost regions of Slovakia. Although deliberate production of PCBs is banned by international treaty, significant amounts of PCBs are still being "inadvertently" produced. Research suggests that 45,000 tons of 'by-product' PCBs are legally produced per year in the US as part of certain chemical and product formulations. Commercial production of PCBs was banned in the United States in 1979, with

3724-425: The environment through both use and disposal. The environmental fate of PCBs is complex and global in scale. Because of their low vapour pressure , PCBs accumulate primarily in the hydrosphere , despite their hydrophobicity , in the organic fraction of soil , and in organisms including the human body. The hydrosphere is the main reservoir. The immense volume of water in the oceans is still capable of dissolving

3800-464: The environment. The negative effects of pesticides are not just in the area of application. Runoff and pesticide drift can carry pesticides into distant aquatic environments or other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport, storage and disposal practices. Over time, repeat application of pesticides increases pest resistance , while its effects on other species can facilitate

3876-449: The first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application . Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983. Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops . Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's CEO in 1983. This involvement increased under

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3952-463: The following names: Brazil Czech Republic and Slovakia France Germany Italy Japan Former USSR United Kingdom United States The only North American producer, Monsanto Company , marketed PCBs under the trade name Aroclor from 1930 to 1977. These were sold under trade names followed by a four-digit number. In general, the first two digits refer to the product series as designated by Monsanto (e.g. 1200 or 1100 series);

4028-638: The formula C 12 H 10− x Cl x ; they were once widely used in the manufacture of carbonless copy paper, as heat transfer fluids , and as dielectric and coolant fluids for electrical equipment. They are highly toxic and carcinogenic chemical compounds, formerly used in industrial and consumer electronic products, whose production was banned internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001. Because of their longevity, PCBs are still widely in use, even though their manufacture has declined drastically since

4104-475: The formula C 12 H 10 , sometimes written (C 6 H 5 ) 2 . In PCBs, some of the hydrogen atoms in biphenyl are replaced by chlorine atoms. There are 209 different chemical compounds in which one to ten chlorine atoms can replace hydrogen atoms. PCBs are typically used as mixtures of compounds and are given the single identifying CAS number 1336-36-3 . About 130 different individual PCBs are found in commercial PCB products. Toxic effects vary depending on

4180-436: The leadership of Robert Shapiro , appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture. In 1985, Monsanto acquired G.D. Searle & Company , a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex , which in 1998 became the first selective COX‑2 inhibitor to be approved by

4256-731: The longer term. In June 2007, Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company , a major cotton seed breeder, for $ 1.5 billion. As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice , Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer , and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot . Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property". In 2007, Monsanto and BASF announced

4332-450: The most likely to leave the organism. However, some metabolites of PCBs containing ortho – meta protons have increased steric hindrance from the oxygen, causing increased stability and an increased chance of accumulation. Metabolism is also dependent on the species of organism; different organisms have slightly different P450 enzymes that metabolize certain PCBs better than others. Looking at

4408-411: The naming system is Aroclor 1016 which was produced by distilling 1242 to remove the highly chlorinated congeners to make a more biodegradable product. "1016" was given to this product during Monsanto's research stage for tracking purposes but the name stuck after it was commercialized. Different Aroclors were used at different times and for different applications. In electrical equipment manufacturing in

4484-517: The order of 1.5 million tonnes. The United States was the single largest producer with over 600,000 tonnes produced between 1930 and 1977. The European region follows with nearly 450,000 tonnes through 1984. It is unlikely that a full inventory of global PCB production will ever be accurately tallied, as there were factories in Poland, East Germany, and Austria that produced unknown amounts of PCBs. As of 2002 , there were still 21,500 tons of PCBs stored in

4560-599: The passage of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). The utility of PCBs is based largely on their chemical stability, including low flammability and high dielectric constant. In an electric arc, PCBs generate incombustible gases. Use of PCBs is commonly divided into closed and open applications. Examples of closed applications include coolants and insulating fluids ( transformer oil ) for transformers and capacitors , such as those used in old fluorescent light ballasts, and hydraulic fluids considered

4636-443: The pest's resurgence. Alternatives to heavy use of pesticides, such as integrated pest management , and sustainable agriculture techniques such as polyculture mitigate these consequences, without the harmful toxic chemical application. Sumerians from 4500 years ago have said to use insecticides in the form of sulfur compounds . Additionally, the Chinese from about 3200 years ago used mercury and arsenic compounds to control

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4712-464: The publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring , increased global attention has been paid to these ecological impacts of certain classes of chemicals, both in terms of effects on ecosystems and biodiversity loss . Some farmers choose not to use agrochemicals, with sustainable agriculture approaches such as organic farming or agroecology, avoiding use of pesticides and industrial chemicals, in favor of naturally occurring chemicals. In most of

4788-401: The purchase of Seminis Inc , a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $ 1.4 billion. This made it the world's largest conventional seed company. In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co. In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia & Upjohn , in a deal valuing the transaction at $ 27 billion. The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of

4864-513: The regulations are carried out through the registration process. For instance, bovine somatotropin , though widely used in the United States , is not approved in Canada and some other jurisdictions as there are concerns for the health of cows using it. The environmental effects of pesticides describe the broad series of consequences of using pesticides. The unintended consequences of pesticides

4940-479: The remainder of the corporation in 1998. In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on Moore's Law , indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired. In 1998, Monsanto purchased Cargill 's international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries. In 2005, it finalized

5016-420: The ring positions ortho to (next to) the other ring, (such as PCBs 77, 126 and 169), tend to have dioxin -like properties, and generally are among the most toxic congeners. Because PCBs are almost invariably found in complex mixtures, the concept of toxic equivalency factors ( TEFs ) has been developed to facilitate risk assessment and regulation, where more toxic PCB congeners are assigned higher TEF values on

5092-469: The rings. Phase I reactions occur by adding an oxygen to either of the benzene rings by Cytochrome P450 . The type of P450 present also determines where the oxygen will be added; phenobarbital (PB)-induced P450s catalyze oxygenation to the meta-para positions of PCBs while 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC)-induced P450s add oxygens to the ortho – meta positions. PCBs containing ortho – meta and meta – para protons can be metabolized by either enzyme, making them

5168-410: The second two numbers indicate the percentage of chlorine by mass in the mixture. Thus, Aroclor 1260 is a 1200 series product and contains 60% chlorine by mass. It is a myth that the first two digits referred to the number of carbon atoms; the number of carbon atoms do not change in PCBs. The 1100 series was a crude PCB material which was distilled to create the 1200 series PCB product. The exception to

5244-450: The seed is the process of applying exogenous materials to the seed. Also referred to as seed dressing. A seed coating is the layer of material added to the seed, which may or may not contain a "protectant" ( biological or chemical pesticide ) or biostimulant applied to the seed and possibly some color... By the amount of material added, it can be divided into: Seed coating provides the following functions: Aerial application , or what

5320-515: The specific PCB. In terms of their structure and toxicity, PCBs fall into two distinct categories, referred to as coplanar or non- ortho -substituted arene substitution patterns and noncoplanar or ortho -substituted congeners. Di- ortho -substituted, non-coplanar PCBs interfere with intracellular signal transduction dependent on calcium which may lead to neurotoxicity . ortho -PCBs can disrupt thyroid hormone transport by binding to transthyretin . Commercial PCB mixtures were marketed under

5396-810: Was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with Leslie Groves , commander of the Manhattan Project , and James Conant , president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). They urged Thomas to become co-director of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer , but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto. He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research. To that end, Monsanto operated

5472-477: Was estimated to account for 120 kg/year of PCBs entering Lake Michigan . In 2008, concentrations as high as 35  ng /m , 10 times higher than the EPA guideline limit of 3.4 ng/m , have been documented inside some houses in the U.S. Volatilization of PCBs in soil was thought to be the primary source of PCBs in the atmosphere, but research suggests ventilation of PCB-contaminated indoor air from buildings

5548-501: Was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a chemical company . The founder was John Francis Queeny , who, at age 42, was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry. He funded the firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor. He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the Monsanto family . The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as

5624-499: Was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products Roundup , PCBs and Dicamba . Owing to the massive financial and reputational blows caused by ongoing litigation concerning Monsanto's herbicide Roundup, the Bayer-Monsanto merger is considered one of the worst corporate mergers in history. In 1901, Monsanto

5700-547: Was the only manufacturer of white phosphorus for military use in the US. Monsanto (Spun off from Pharmacia & Upjohn 2000) Agrochemical Agrochemicals are counted among speciality chemicals . Most agrochemicals are products of the petrochemical industry , where chemicals are derivitatives of fossil fuels. The production and use of agrochemicals contribute substantially to climate change , both through direct emissions during production, and through indirect emissions created from soil ecology problems created by

5776-534: Was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform". Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased Seminis , the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $ 1.4 billion. Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in

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