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39-793: Mokilese originated from the Mokil (or Mwoakilloa) Atoll, but speakers have also migrated approximately 100 miles west, to the Pohnpei Islands, and parts of the United States . Mwoakilloa and Pohnpei are both geographically part of the Caroline Islands just above Papua New Guinea . Mwoakilloa is a district of the outlying islands of Pohnpei of the Federated States of Micronesia . Before Western contact, Mokilese only had contact with its neighboring islands: Pohnpei , Pingelap , Kosrae , and

78-487: A UN trust territory under U.S. jurisdiction in 1947 until the trust territory dissolved in 1986 (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). All this outside contact introduced many loanwords to Mokilese, although there are only a few for Spanish and German because their contact durations were shorter. Word derived from Spanish : Word derived from German : Word derived from Japanese : Word derived from English (before WWII): Word derived from English (after WWII): Mokilese

117-564: A fricative [ʝ] in certain positions, and may also be heard as a palatal affricate [ɟ͡ʝ] in free variation. In addition Mokilese contrasts between simple and geminate consonants and each consonant above has a geminate pair. For example li kk oau ( clothes ) contrasts with li k oau ( chapped ). Geminate consonants only occur between vowels . Geminate ⟨pw⟩, ⟨mw⟩, and ⟨ng⟩ are written ⟨pww⟩, ⟨mww⟩, and ⟨ngg⟩, respectively. Mokilese has 7 simple phonemic vowels distinguishing between short and long varieties of each. Although distinguished in

156-595: A little over 900 in Pohnpei and less than 150 in Mokil Atoll. The other 450 speakers are scattered across the United States (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013). Although this language originated in Mokil Atoll, there are now only around 150 speakers who live in Mokil Atoll, while the rest live in diaspora communities ―approximately 100 miles west― to Pohnpei, where they remain until this day (Rehg & Bender, 1990). Mokilese

195-400: A new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment [oχ] . This can be written succinctly as -Coχ . Below are some examples: Somali has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base): This combination of reduplication and affixation

234-585: A part of the UN trust territory under U.S. jurisdiction in 1947 until the trust territory dissolved in 1986 (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). Mokilese is both the name of the Mokil population and the language which they speak. It is currently spoken on Mokil Atoll, the Pohnpei Islands, and in some parts of the United States . There are only approximately 1,500 speakers of this language left. 1,050 of whom reside in Micronesia ;

273-412: A reduplication of linguistic constituents (i.e. words , stems , roots ). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology. The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant , often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R . In reduplication, the reduplicant

312-786: A reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant ( CVC ) sequence of a base, i.e. base + CVC : Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu example below: Reduplication may be initial (i.e. prefixal ), final (i.e. suffixal ), or internal (i.e. infixal ), e.g. Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix) : Final reduplication in Dakota (-CCV suffix) : Internal reduplication in Samoan (-CV- infix) : Internal reduplication

351-599: A special written iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in calligraphy . Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of verb forms, especially in the preterite or perfect . In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive: Those forms do not survive in Modern English but existed in its parent Germanic languages . Many verbs in

390-494: A word. Next, there's the CVh reduplication form. This is the reduplication of the first CV of a word and lengthening of the vowel with /h/. Another reduplication form Mokilese has is VCC. When reduplicating VC, the consonant is also geminated . There is also the CV reduplication, which reduplicates the first CV of a word. However, sometimes the CV reduplication can become CVV. Lastly, there

429-454: Is Subject-Verb-Object (Harrison & Albert, 1976). ex. Woal lapp-o loakjid phon woss-o. Man old-that to fish on reef-that That old man is fishing on the reef. This example shows the subject (man) comes first, then the verb (to fish), and lastly, the object (reef). There are many forms of reduplication in Mokilese. The most common reduplication form is a reduplication of the first CVC of

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468-442: Is a morphological process in which the root or the stem of a word (or part of it), or even the whole word, is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edward Sapir's : "generally employed, with self-evident symbolism, to indicate such concepts as distribution, plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity, continuance." Reduplication

507-527: Is a Micronesian language, and therefore, a part of the Austronesian language family . Mokilese belongs to the Pohnpeic subgrouping , and is the sister language of Pingelapese and Pohnpeian . Mokilese shares approximately 79% lexical similarity with Pingelapese , and 75% with Pohnapeian (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013). Mokilese has the following simple consonant phonemes : /ɟ/ may also be realized as

546-478: Is also the CVC reduplication form. CVC reduplicates the last CVC of a word rather than the first, and it is also a suffix, unlike the other forms, which are prefixes. Mokilese has a base 10 counting system. Rather than having just one set of numbers, Mokilese has four sets, each used to count different things. Each number consist of a numeral prefix and a numeral classifier . Most of the numeral prefixes are similar across

585-499: Is an endangered language . It is only spoken at home, and the language acquisition is getting worse with each generation. This is because the younger generations are not fluent speakers, they prefer learning Pohnpeian and English instead, so only the elders and adults are actually fluent (Poll, 2013). This is just for the Mokilese speakers in Pohnpei and Mokil Atoll; the speakers in the U. S. are all old and have no domains of use, so when they die, there will be no more speakers in

624-426: Is an inhabited atoll in the central Pacific Ocean . Geographically, it belongs to the Caroline Islands and is a municipality of the outlying islands of Pohnpei State of the Federated States of Micronesia . Mwoakilloa lies 153 kilometres east of Pohnpei and approximately 113 kilometres northwest of Pingelap . The almost-rectangular atoll is 4.5 kilometres long and 2.8 kilometres broad. The atoll consists of

663-494: Is commonly referred to as fixed-segment reduplication . In Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs: Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication. In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions): In pre-1972 Indonesian and Malaysian orthography, 2

702-459: Is contrasted to "junk-food". One may say, "En ollut eilen koulussa, koska olin kipeä. Siis kipeäkipeä" ("I wasn't at school yesterday because I was sick. Sick-sick, that is"); that means that one was actually suffering from an illness instead of making up excuses, as usual. Words can be reduplicated with their case morphemes, as in lomalla lomalla ("away, on vacation, on leave"), where the adessive morpheme - -lla appears twice. In Swiss German ,

741-769: Is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root. Internal R → L copying in Temiar (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia ): A rare type of reduplication is found in Semai (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base: All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as vowel alternation , deletion , affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc. For instance, in Tz'utujil

780-516: Is difficult to tell exactly how many because of the problems in distinguishing such borrowings from native Mokilese words." With that said, a few loanwords from these places have been identified. Words derived from Pohnpeian : Words derived from Marshallese: Word derived from Marshallese: Mokilese also borrowed words from foreign languages such as German , Spanish , Japanese , and English . These borrowings occurred due to colonization. The first of these languages to come in contact with Mokilese

819-542: Is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times. Pingelapese has both forms. In this article, English translations of words are shown in apostrophes: Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. Ewe , Shipibo , Twi , Mokilese , Min Nan ( Hokkien ), Stau . Sometimes gemination (i.e.

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858-565: Is much less common than the initial and final types. A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word ( left-to-right copying) or from the right edge ( right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left: Initial L → R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a Pama–Nyungan language of Australia ): Final R → L copying in Sirionó : Copying from

897-511: Is used in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical derivation to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity varies. Examples of it can be found at least as far back as Sumerian , where it

936-759: Is used to describe long objects like pencil, canoe, songs, stories, road, etc. -kij is for describing things that have parts and pieces such as slices of bread, sheets of paper, fragment of a mirror, etc. Mokilese's numerals can also reach up to the billions. However, most of the higher numerals are rarely used because there are only so many things that they would need to count in millions or billions. Mokilese has borrowed numerous words from languages of foreigners who traveled into Micronesia , as well as from other Micronesian languages. Some Micronesian languages that influenced Mokilese were Pohnpeian , Marshallese , Pingelapese , and Kusaiean (Rehg & Bender, 1990). The reason why Mokilese borrowed words from these languages

975-611: The Marshall Islands . After Spanish explorers "rediscovered" Mokil Atoll, they colonized it in 1886 (Hezel, 1992). Shortly after they lost the Spanish-American War in 1898, they sold it to Germany (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). Later, in 1914, it was seized by Japan and heavily fortified during World War II , until Japan surrendered and passed it on to the United States in August 1945 (Hezel, 1992). Thereafter, it became

1014-629: The Pohnpeian language in the family of Micronesian languages . The name "Wellington Island" comes from the vessel Marquis of Wellington , whose captain named the island after his vessel. The Marquis of Wellington was on her way to China, having transported 200 or so convicts to Port Jackson , Australia, from Britain. Mokil Airfield is located on the southern end of Kahlap with a 1,200 feet (370 m) runway. The airfield offers no service and used by chartered flights by Caroline Islands Air . Reduplication In linguistics , reduplication

1053-566: The 1960s and the language is changing rapidly. Other physical materials in Mokilese are books of chants, songs, accounts and tales of Mokil Atoll, which are few. There is also one short interview video, and a couple of war dance videos on YouTube. However, there are no websites, TV shows, or radio stations in their language. Mokil Atoll 6°40′N 159°46′E  /  6.667°N 159.767°E  / 6.667; 159.767 Mwoakilloa (or Mokil previously named Wellington Island or Duperrey Island , after Louis Isidore Duperrey )

1092-609: The Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the present stem, rather than the perfect stem, often with a different vowel from that used for the perfect: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") and Greek τίθημι, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα (I place, I placed, I have placed). Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process: compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of those Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws. Reduplication can be used to refer to

1131-571: The United States (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013). On top of that, Mokilese not only does not have government recognition, there is not even a single school that teaches Mokilese (Poll, 2013). Not only is the Mokilese language endangered, it also lacks extensive documentation. The complete published resources are a Mokilese-English Dictionary (Harrison & Albert, 1977) and a Mokilese Reference Grammar (Harrison & Albert, 1976). However these resources are fairly outdated since they were written in

1170-486: The doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme ) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning. Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from reflexive forms by total reduplication: Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" aspect formation: Partial reduplication involves

1209-413: The four different sets, it is the general classifier that distinguishes one set from another. The four general classifiers are –w , –men , –pas , and –kij , as shown in the chart below. –w is a general classifier; it is used to count numbers and describe other objects that are not covered by the other number classifiers. -men describes animate nouns such as people, bird, animal, fish, etc. -pas

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1248-505: The most prototypical instance of a word's meaning. In such a case, it is called contrastive focus reduplication . Finnish colloquial speech uses the process; nouns can be reduplicated to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated, as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example, Söin jäätelöä ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate ice cream and candy, and of course food-food". Here, "food-food"

1287-556: The other direction is possible although less common: Initial R → L copying in Tillamook : Final L → R copying in Chukchi : Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base. Internal L → R copying in Quileute : In Temiar, the last consonant of the root

1326-505: The phonology, /e/ and /ɛ/ are not distinguished in Mokilese orthography. Both are written ⟨e⟩ . Mokilese also allows triphthongs , which is rare among the Pacific languages. Mokilese words can begin and end with both vowels and consonants. However, this does not mean that there are no rules at all. Mokilese syllables still maintain a set of rules as explained by Harrison and Albert (1976): The basic word order for Mokilese

1365-408: The three islands Uhrek , Kahlap (Capitol), and Mwandohn , forming a central lagoon of approximately 2 square kilometres in area. Only the northeast island Kahlap is inhabited, with the town facing the lagoon. The total area of all islands is approximately 1.24 square kilometres. The population of Mwoakilloa decreased from 177 in 2000 to 147 in 2008. The inhabitants speak Mokilese — similar to

1404-578: Was Spanish , which occurred in the 16th century, when Spanish explorers discovered Micronesia (Hezel, 1992). Then they colonized the Mokil Atoll in 1886. Shortly after, Spain sold the island to Germany after they lost the Spanish–American War in 1898 (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). Later, in 1914, the island was seized by Japan in 1919, and heavily fortified during World War II , until they surrendered and passed it on to United States in August 1945 (Hezel, 1992). Thereafter, it became part of

1443-497: Was because they had lived in close contact with the people of these islands for many years. Because of how this borrowing occurred, it is hard to tell exactly when the words were borrowed, especially since there were hardly any documentations from back then. On top of that, not all loanwords are easy to identify because these languages are all, more or less, closely related to Mokilese. Sheldon P. Harrison (1976) believed there to be more loanwords from other Micronesian languages, but "it

1482-548: Was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people". This orthography has resurfaced widely in text messaging and other forms of electronic communication. The Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a verb : go , "look;", go-go "examine with attention". Chinese also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". Japanese does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use

1521-680: Was used in forming some color terms , e.g. babbar "white", kukku "black". Reduplication is the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other terms that are occasionally used include cloning , doubling , duplication , repetition , and tautonym when it is used in biological taxonomies , such as Bison bison . Reduplication is often described phonologically in one of two ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants / vowels ) or (2) as reduplicated prosodic units ( syllables or moras ). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described morphologically as

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