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65-533: The Arabic name Mokattam means cut off or broken off and apparently refers to how the low range of hills is divided into three sections. Paul Casanova advocated the idea that it is a corruption of an older name Maqaduniya ( Arabic : مقدونية ), mentioned in Medieval Arabic sources, which he derives from Makhetow ( Ancient Egyptian : Mḫꜣ.t-Tꜣ.wy , lit.   'Scales of the Two Lands';), one of

130-578: A magnitude-8.8 earthquake struck central Chile on February 27, 2010 , the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle volcano erupted in 2011 , and a M8.2 earthquake struck northern Chile on April 1, 2014 . The main shock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks, including a magnitude-7.6 event on April 2. Bolivia hosts active and extinct volcanoes across its territory. The active volcanoes are located in western Bolivia where they make up

195-626: A football team that plays in the Egyptian third division called Misr Insurance (Masr Le El Tammeen) . Moreover, the top division club Al Mokawloon Al Arab SC actually lies on the border of the Mokkattam mountain. Mokattam is widely known in the Coptic Church , as it is believed that the mountain has moved up and down when the Coptic Pope Abraham of Alexandria , following the advice of Saint Simon

260-436: A lava flow. The last major eruption of Calbuco, in 1961, sent ash columns 12–15 km (7.5–9.3 mi) high and produced plumes that dispersed mainly to the southeast and two lava flows were also emitted. A minor, four-hour eruption happened on August 26, 1972. Strong fumarolic emission from the main crater was observed on August 12, 1996. Lonquimay is a stratovolocano of late-Pleistocene to dominantly Holocene age, with

325-801: A variety of rock types . Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide belt . The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera , the Aleutian Range , on through Kamchatka Peninsula , Japan , Taiwan , the Philippines , Papua New Guinea , to New Zealand . The Andes

390-688: Is 7,000 kilometres (4,350 mi) long and is often considered the world's longest mountain system. The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia , from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe , including the ranges of the Himalayas , Karakoram , Hindu Kush , Alborz , Caucasus , and the Alps . The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in

455-554: Is a major late Cenozoic volcanic province. Sabancaya is an active 5,976-metre (19,606 ft) stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru , about 100 km (60 mi) northwest of Arequipa . It is the most active volcano in Peru, with an ongoing eruption that started in 2016. Ubinas is another active volcano of 5,672-metre (18,609 ft) in southern Peru; its most recent eruption occurred in 2019. Volcanoes in Peru are monitored by

520-476: Is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny . Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics . Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in

585-474: Is a stratovolcano and the most active volcano of the northern Chilean Andes. The largest eruption of Lascar took place about 26,500 years ago, and following the eruption of the Tumbres scoria flow about 9,000 years ago, activity shifted back to the eastern edifice, where three overlapping craters were formed. Frequent small-to-moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from Lascar in historical time since

650-561: Is a stratovolcano in southern Chile, located southeast of Llanquihue Lake and northwest of Chapo Lake , in Los Lagos Region . The volcano and the surrounding area are protected within Llanquihue National Reserve . It is a very explosive andesite volcano that underwent edifice collapse in the late Pleistocene , producing a volcanic debris avalanche that reached the lake. At least nine eruptions occurred since 1837, with

715-630: Is a stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, immediately north of Cerro Miscanti . Laguna Lejía lies to the north of the volcano and has been dormant for at least 10,000 years, but is now showing signs of life. A January 6, 2002, nighttime thermal infrared image from ASTER revealed a hot spot in the summit crater, as well as several others along the upper flanks of the volcano's edifice, indicating new volcanic activity. Examination of an earlier nighttime thermal infrared image from May 24, 2000, showed no such hot spots. Calbuco

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780-525: Is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some 10,000 feet (3,000 m) of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to

845-792: Is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted at the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril arcs. Farther south, at Japan, Taiwan and the Philippines, the Philippine Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian plate. The southwest section of the Ring of Fire is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate at

910-479: Is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. As a consequence, large mountain ranges, such as the Andes, compartmentalize continents into distinct climate regions . Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments that are buried and turned into sedimentary rock . Erosion

975-607: Is not related to subduction; therefore, they are not part of the Ring of Fire. The world's highest active volcano is Ojos del Salado (6,893 m or 22,615 ft), which is in the Andes Mountains section of the Ring of Fire. It forms part of the border between Argentina and Chile and it last erupted in AD 750. Another Ring of Fire Andean volcano on the Argentina-Chile border is Llullaillaco (6,739 m or 22,110 ft), which

1040-464: Is now eastern China. The Pacific plate came into existence in the Early Jurassic about 190 million years ago, far from the margins of the then Paleo-Pacific Ocean. Until the Pacific plate grew large enough to reach the margins of the ocean basin, other older plates were subducted ahead of it at the ocean basin margins. For example, subduction has been occurring at the coast of South America since

1105-490: Is subducted in the western Pacific, with steeper angles of slab descent. This variation affects, for example, the location of volcanoes relative to the ocean trench, lava composition, type and severity of earthquakes, sediment accretion , and the amount of compression or tension. A spectrum of subduction zones exists between the Chilean and Mariana end members. Oceanic trenches are the topographic expression of subduction zones on

1170-559: Is the world's highest historically active volcano, last erupting in 1877. Chile has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions from about 90 volcanoes during the Holocene Epoch. Villarrica is one of Chile's most active volcanoes, rising above the lake and town of the same name. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andes along the Gastre Fault . Villarrica, along with Quetrupillán and

1235-461: The Antarctic Peninsula and western Indonesia, is disputed. The Ring of Fire has existed for more than 35 million years but subduction has existed for much longer in some parts of the Ring; many older extinct volcanoes are located within the Ring. More than 350 of the Ring of Fire's volcanoes have been active in historical times , while the four largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in

1300-746: The Cordillera Occidental , the western limit of the Altiplano plateau. Some of the active volcanoes are international mountains shared with Chile . All Cenozoic volcanoes of Bolivia are part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andean Volcanic Belt that results due to processes involved in the subduction of the Nazca plate under the South American plate . The Central Volcanic Zone

1365-556: The Jurassic Period more than 145 million years ago, and remnants of Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic arcs are preserved there. At about 120 to 115 million years ago, the Farallon plate was subducting under South America, North America and north-east Asia while the Izanagi plate was subducting under east Asia. By 85 to 70 million years ago, the Izanagi plate had moved north-eastwards and

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1430-474: The Mariana Islands , the Philippines , eastern Indonesia , Papua New Guinea , Tonga , and New Zealand; this part of the Ring excludes Australia , because that landmass lies in the center of its tectonic plate far from subduction zones. If a tectonic plate's oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere of another plate, a volcanic island arc is created at the subduction zone. An example in

1495-582: The Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto. Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars . Jupiter's moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including the Boösaule , Dorian, Hi'iaka and Euboea Montes . Pacific Ring of Fire The Ring of Fire (also known as

1560-467: The Ocean Ridge forms the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of 65,000 kilometres (40,400 mi). The position of mountain ranges influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools, producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (following the adiabatic lapse rate ) and

1625-655: The Pacific Ring of Fire , the Rim of Fire , the Girdle of Fire or the Circum-Pacific belt ) is a tectonic belt of volcanoes and earthquakes . It is about 40,000 km (25,000 mi) long and up to about 500 km (310 mi) wide, and surrounds most of the Pacific Ocean . The Ring of Fire contains between 750 and 915 active or dormant volcanoes, around two-thirds of the world total. The exact number of volcanoes within

1690-513: The Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets . Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys . Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology . They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes , for example thrust sheets , uplifted blocks , fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in

1755-626: The South American plate ; the Pacific and Juan de Fuca plates beneath the North American plate ; the Philippine Plate beneath the Eurasian plate ; and a complex boundary between the Pacific and Australian plate . The interactions at these plate boundaries have formed oceanic trenches , volcanic arcs , back-arc basins and volcanic belts . The inclusion of some areas in the Ring of Fire, such as

1820-617: The Alpide belt). Some geologists include the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands in the Ring of Fire, other geologists exclude these areas. The rest of Antarctica is excluded because the volcanism there is not related to subduction. The Ring of Fire does not extend across the southern Pacific Ocean from New Zealand to the Antarctic Peninsula or from New Zealand to the southern tip of South America because

1885-509: The Chilean part of Lanín , are protected within Villarrica National Park . Villarrica, with its lava of basaltic-andesitic composition, is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake within its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions , with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows. Melting of snow and glacier ice , as well as rainfall, often causes lahars , such as during

1950-584: The Gulf of California and due partly to the San Andreas Fault (a non-volcanic transform boundary ). Another North American gap in subduction-related volcanic activity occurs in northern British Columbia, Yukon and south-east Alaska, where volcanism is caused by intraplate continental rifting . The four largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) occurred at volcanoes in

2015-601: The Holocene epoch all occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire. Most of Earth's active volcanoes with summits above sea level are located in the Ring of Fire. Many of these subaerial volcanoes are stratovolcanoes (e.g. Mount St. Helens ), formed by explosive eruptions of tephra alternating with effusive eruptions of lava flows. Lavas at the Ring of Fire's stratovolcanoes are mainly andesite and basaltic andesite but dacite , rhyolite , basalt and some other rarer types also occur. Other types of volcano are also found in

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2080-464: The Kula and Farallon plates had been subducted and the Pacific plate was subducting around its rim in a configuration closely resembling the outline of the present-day Ring of Fire. The eastern parts of the Ring of Fire result from the collision of a few relatively large plates. The western parts of the Ring are more complex, with a number of large and small tectonic plates in collision. In South America,

2145-510: The Ring of Fire at some parts of the Pacific coast of the Americas. In some places, the gaps are thought to be caused by flat slab subduction ; examples are the three gaps between the four sections of the Andean Volcanic Belt in South America. In North America, there is a gap in subduction-related volcanic activity in northern Mexico and southern California, due partly to a divergent boundary in

2210-513: The Ring of Fire depends on which regions are included. About 90% of the world's earthquakes, including most of its largest, occur within the belt. The Ring of Fire is not a single geological structure. It was created by the subduction of different tectonic plates at convergent boundaries around the Pacific Ocean. These include: the Antarctic , Nazca and Cocos plates subducting beneath

2275-465: The Ring of Fire is the Mariana Arc in the western Pacific Ocean. If, however, oceanic lithosphere is subducted under continental lithosphere, then a volcanic continental arc forms; a Ring of Fire example is the coast of Chile. The steepness of the descending plate at a subduction zone depends on the age of the oceanic lithosphere that is being subducted. The older the oceanic lithosphere being subducted,

2340-575: The Ring of Fire is the result of the Antarctic plate , the Nazca plate and the Cocos plate being subducted beneath the South American plate . In Central America , the Cocos plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean plate . A portion of the Pacific plate and the small Juan de Fuca plate are being subducted beneath the North American plate . Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate

2405-686: The Ring of Fire volcanoes as follows: "They [the Japanese Islands] are in the line of that immense circle of volcanic development which surrounds the shores of the Pacific from Tierra del Fuego around to the Moluccas ." ( Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1852–54 . ) An article appeared in Scientific American in 1878 with the title "The Ring of Fire, and

2470-423: The Ring of Fire, such as subaerial shield volcanoes (e.g. Plosky Tolbachik ), and submarine seamounts (e.g. Monowai ). From Ancient Greek and Roman times until the late 18th century, volcanoes were associated with fire, based on the ancient belief that volcanoes were caused by fires burning within the Earth. This historical link between volcanoes and fire is preserved in the name of the Ring of Fire, despite

2535-465: The Ring of Fire. The next most seismically active region (5–6% of earthquakes and some of the world's largest earthquakes) is the Alpide belt, which extends from central Indonesia to the northern Atlantic Ocean via the Himalayas and southern Europe. From 1900 to the end of 2020, most earthquakes of magnitude M w ≥ 8.0 occurred in the Ring of Fire. They are presumed to have been megathrust earthquakes at subduction zones, including four of

2600-421: The Ring of Fire. They are the eruptions at Fisher Caldera (Alaska, 8700 BC ), Kurile Lake (Kamchatka, 6450 BC), Kikai Caldera (Japan, 5480 BC) and Mount Mazama (Oregon, 5677 BC). More broadly, twenty of the twenty-five largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in this time interval occurred at Ring of Fire volcanoes. About 90% of the world's earthquakes and most of the world's largest earthquakes occur along

2665-560: The South Shetland subduction zone. The Antarctic Peninsula (Graham Land) is also sometimes included in the Ring. Volcanoes south of the Antarctic Circle (e.g. the volcanoes of Victoria Land including Mount Erebus , and the volcanoes of Mary Byrd Land ) are not related to subduction; therefore, they are not part of the Ring of Fire. The Balleny Islands , located between Antarctica and New Zealand, are volcanic but their volcanism

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2730-651: The Tanner, performed a mass near it in order to prove to the Caliph that the Gospel is true when it says that "if one has faith like a grain of mustard one can move a mountain". The name "Broken-off Mountain" may be related to the fact that in the story the mountain breaks off from the underlying rock and rises up, before coming back down again. 30°01′N 31°18′E  /  30.02°N 31.30°E  / 30.02; 31.30 Mountain range A mountain range or hill range

2795-575: The Volcanic Peaks of the West Coast of the United States", which outlined the phenomenon of volcanic activity around the boundaries of the Pacific. Early explicit references to volcanoes forming a "ring of fire" around the Pacific Ocean also include Alexander P. Livingstone's book "Complete Story of San Francisco's Terrible Calamity of Earthquake and Fire" , published in 1906, in which he describes "...

2860-728: The central parts of the Pacific Basin, for example the Hawaiian Islands , are very far from subduction zones and they are not part of the Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire has existed for more than 35 million years. In some parts of the Ring of Fire, subduction has been occurring for much longer. The current configuration of the Pacific Ring of Fire has been created by the development of the present-day subduction zones, initially (by about 115 million years ago) in South America, North America and Asia. As plate configurations gradually changed,

2925-696: The current subduction zones of Indonesia and New Guinea were created (about 70 million years ago), followed finally by the New Zealand subduction zone (about 35 million years ago). Along the coast of east Asia, during the Late Triassic about 210 million years ago, subduction of the Izanagi plate (the Paleo-Pacific plate) was occurring, and this continued in the Jurassic , producing volcanic belts, for example, in what

2990-485: The east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight. Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principal cause of mountain range erosion, by cutting into bedrock and transporting sediment. Computer simulation has shown that as mountain belts change from tectonically active to inactive,

3055-545: The eruptions of 1964 and 1971. A two-kilometre-wide ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4  mi) postglacial caldera is located at the base of the presently active dominantly basaltic-to-andesitic cone at the northwest margin of the Pleistocene caldera. About 25 scoria cones dot Villarica's flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows have been produced during the Holocene from this dominantly basaltic volcano, but historical eruptions have consisted of largely mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Lahars from

3120-442: The fact that volcanoes do not burn the Earth with fire. The existence of a belt of volcanic activity around the Pacific Ocean was known in the early 19th century; for example, in 1825 the pioneering volcanologist G. P. Scrope described the chains of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean's rim in his book Considerations on Volcanos [ sic ]. Three decades later, a book about the Perry Expedition to Japan commented on

3185-458: The floor of the oceans. Oceanic trenches associated with the Ring of Fire's subduction zones are: Subduction zones around the Pacific Ocean do not form a complete ring. Where subduction zones are absent, there are corresponding gaps in subduction-related volcanic belts in the Ring of Fire. In some gaps there is no volcanic activity; in other gaps, volcanic activity does occur but it is caused by processes not related to subduction. There are gaps in

3250-413: The foot of the Mokattam Hills. EMAAR Misr, the Egyptian subsidiary of the Dubai-based real estate organization Emaar Properties built Uptown Cairo in Mokattam. The Moqattam district lies in the Southern Area of Cairo, Egypt. In 2017, it had 224,138 residents in its 10 shiakhas: In Mokkattam, like other places in Cairo, the locals support either Al Ahly SC or El Zamalek , yet Mokkattam itself has

3315-482: The glacier-covered volcanoes have damaged towns on its flanks. The Llaima Volcano is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Chile. It is situated 82 km (51 mi) northeast of Temuco and 663 km (412 mi) southeast of Santiago , within the borders of Conguillío National Park . Llaima's activity has been documented since the 17th century, and consists of several separate episodes of moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows. Lascar

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3380-440: The great ring of fire which circles round the whole surface of the Pacific Ocean.". In 1912, geologist Patrick Marshall introduced the term " Andesite Line " to mark a boundary between islands in the southwest Pacific, which differ in volcano structure and lava types. The concept was later extended to other parts of the Pacific Ocean. The Andesite Line and the Ring of Fire closely match in terms of location. The development of

3445-406: The intersection of the Ring of Fire and the Alpide belt (which is the Earth's other very long subduction-related volcanic and earthquake zone, also known as the Mediterranean–Indonesian volcanic belt, running east–west through southern Asia and southern Europe). Some geologists include all of Indonesia in the Ring of Fire; many geologists exclude Indonesia's western islands (which they include in

3510-467: The latest one in 1972. One of the largest historical eruptions in southern Chile took place there in 1893–1894. Violent eruptions ejected 30 cm (12 in) bombs to distances of 8 km (5.0 mi) from the crater, accompanied by voluminous hot lahars. Strong explosions occurred in April 1917, and a lava dome formed in the crater accompanied by hot lahars. Another short explosive eruption in January 1929 also included an apparent pyroclastic flow and

3575-415: The mid-19th century, along with periodic larger eruptions that produced ash and tephra fall up to hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. The largest eruption of Lascar in recent history took place in 1993, producing pyroclastic flows as far as 8.5 km (5 mi) northwest of the summit and ash fall in Buenos Aires , Argentina, more than 1,600 km (1,000 mi) to the southeast. Chiliques

3640-406: The most powerful earthquakes on Earth since modern seismological measuring equipment and magnitude measurement scales were introduced in the 1930s: Some geologists include the volcanoes of the South Shetland Islands , off the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, as part of the Ring of Fire. These volcanoes, e.g. Deception Island , are due to rifting in the Bransfield back-arc basin close to

3705-553: The names of Memphis . The highest segment is a low mountain landform called Moqattam Mountain. In the past the low mountain range was an important ancient Egyptian quarry site for limestone , used in the construction of temples and pyramids . The hills are in the region of ancient Fustat , the new capital founded by 'Amr ibn al-'As after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 642 CE. The Zabbaleen people, who are an integral part of collecting and processing Cairo's municipal solid waste , live in Manshiyat Naser , Garbage City , at

3770-516: The rate of erosion drops because there are fewer abrasive particles in the water and fewer landslides. Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System, including the Moon , are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or "Montes") somewhat similar to those on Earth. Saturn 's moon Titan and Pluto , in particular, exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock. Examples include

3835-408: The shape of a truncated cone. The cone is largely andesitic, though basaltic and dacitic rocks are present. It is located in La Araucanía Region of Chile , immediately southeast of Tolhuaca volcano. Sierra Nevada and Llaima are their neighbors to the south. The snow-capped volcano lies within the protected area Malalcahuello-Nalcas . The volcano last erupted in 1988, ending in 1990. The VEI

3900-440: The steeper the angle of descent of the subducted slab. As the Pacific's mid-ocean ridges , which are the source of its oceanic lithosphere, are not actually in the middle of the ocean but located much closer to South America than to Asia, the oceanic lithosphere consumed at the South American subduction zones is younger and therefore subduction occurs at the South American coast at a relatively shallow angle. Older oceanic lithosphere

3965-405: The submarine plate boundaries in this part of the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific–Antarctic Ridge , the East Pacific Rise and the Chile Ridge ) are divergent instead of convergent. Although some volcanism occurs in this region, it is not related to subduction. Some geologists include the Izu Islands , the Bonin Islands , and the Mariana Islands , other geologists exclude them. Volcanoes in

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4030-447: The theory of plate tectonics since the early 1960s has provided the current understanding and explanation of the global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes, including those in the Ring of Fire. There is consensus among geologists about most of the regions which are included in the Ring of Fire. There are, however, a few regions on which there is no universal agreement. (See: § Distribution of volcanoes ). Indonesia lies at

4095-413: The world, including Mount Everest , which is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) high. Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera , Appalachians , Great Dividing Range , East Siberians , Altais , Scandinavians , Qinling , Western Ghats , Vindhyas , Byrrangas , and the Annamite Range . If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then

4160-427: Was 3. The eruption was from a flank vent and involved lava flows and explosive eruptions. Some fatalities occurred. The volcanoes in Chile are monitored by the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) Earthquake activity in Chile is related to subduction of the Nazca plate to the east. Chile notably holds the record for the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 1960 Valdivia earthquake . More recently,

4225-428: Was subducting under east Asia and North America, while the Farallon plate was subducting under South America and the Pacific plate was subducting under east Asia. About 70 to 65 million years ago, the Farallon plate was subducting under South America, the Kula plate was subducting under North America and north-east Asia, and the Pacific plate was subducting under east Asia and Papua New Guinea. About 35 million years ago,

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