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142-540: Modernity , a topic in the humanities and social sciences , is both a historical period (the modern era ) and the ensemble of particular socio - cultural norms , attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of the Renaissance —in the Age of Reason of 17th-century thought and the 18th-century Enlightenment . Commentators variously consider the era of modernity to have ended by 1930, with World War II in 1945, or as late as

284-437: A foreign language usually include study of important works of the literature in that language, as well as the language itself. In everyday language, law refers to a rule that is enforced by a governing institution, as opposed to a moral or ethical rule that is not subject to formal enforcement. The study of law can be seen as either a social science or a humanities discipline, depending on one's perspective. Some see it as

426-527: A "decline and fall", as Edward Gibbon put it, of imperial society. Writers taking this line relied heavily on the scandalous behavior of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the bad emperors reported by Tacitus and other writers and later by the secret history of Procopius , who hated his royal employers to such a degree that he could not contain himself about their real methods and way of life any longer. They, however, spoke elegant Latin. The Protestants changed

568-405: A "satisfaction" found in this mass culture. In addition, Saler observed that "different accounts of modernity may stress diverse combinations or accentuate some factors more than others...Modernity is defined less by binaries arranged in an implicit hierarchy, or by the dialectical transformation of one term into its opposite, than by unresolved contradictions and oppositions, or antinomies: modernity

710-400: A 2006 review essay, historian Michael Saler extended and substantiated this premise, noting that scholarship had revealed historical perspectives on modernity that encompassed both enchantment and disenchantment . Late Victorians, for instance, "discussed science in terms of magical influences and vital correspondences, and when vitalism began to be superseded by more mechanistic explanations in

852-566: A contemporary scholar, as opposed to old authorities such as Benedict of Nursia . In its early medieval usage , the term modernus referred to authorities regarded in medieval Europe as younger than the Greco-Roman scholars of Classical antiquity and/or the Church Fathers of the Christian era, but not necessarily to the present day, and could include authors several centuries old, from about

994-406: A decadency, that it became nothing better than a barbarous jargon. It is the style of these times that is given the name of Low Latin .... What indeed could be expected from this language, at a time when the barbarians had taken possession of Europe, but especially of Italy; when the empire of the east was governed by idiots; when there was a total corruption of morals; when the priests and monks were

1136-487: A degree in the humanities. By 2010, this figure had risen to 2.6%. This represents a doubling of the number of Americans with degrees in the humanities over a 60-year period. The increase in the number of Americans with humanities degrees is in part due to the overall rise in college enrollment in the United States. In 1940, 4.6% of Americans had a four-year degree, but by 2016, this figure had risen to 33.4%. This means that

1278-408: A discrete "term applied to the cultural condition in which the seemingly absolute necessity of innovation becomes a primary fact of life, work, and thought". And modernity in art "is more than merely the state of being modern, or the opposition between old and new". In the essay " The Painter of Modern Life " (1863), Charles Baudelaire gives a literary definition: "By modernity I mean the transitory,

1420-656: A field called the digital humanities . Late Latin Late Latin is the scholarly name for the form of Literary Latin of late antiquity . English dictionary definitions of Late Latin date this period from the 3rd to 6th centuries AD , and continuing into the 7th century in the Iberian Peninsula . This somewhat ambiguously defined version of Latin was used between the eras of Classical Latin and Medieval Latin . Scholars do not agree exactly when Classical Latin should end or Medieval Latin should begin. Being

1562-543: A large empire, Latin tended to become simpler, to keep above all what it had of the ordinary." The origin of the term 'Late Latin' remains obscure. A notice in Harper's New Monthly Magazine of the publication of Andrews' Freund's Lexicon of the Latin Language in 1850 mentions that the dictionary divides Latin into ante-classic, quite classic, Ciceronian, Augustan, post-Augustan and post-classic or late Latin, which indicates

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1704-518: A logical conclusion, lead to atheism. The Roman Catholic Church was serious enough about the threat of Modernism that it required all Roman Catholic clergy, pastors, confessors, preachers, religious superiors and seminary professors to swear an Oath against modernism from 1910 until this directive was rescinded in 1967, in keeping with the directives of the Second Vatican Council . Of the available conceptual definitions in sociology, modernity

1846-641: A modern phylosopher] The Biblical God...was a mere myth of bygone ages. When, with the beginning of modern times, religious belief was becoming more and more externalized as a lifeless convention, men of intellect were lifted by a new belief, their great belief in an autonomous philosophy and science. Humanities The humanities include the studies of philosophy , religion , history , language arts ( literature , writing , oratory , rhetoric , poetry , etc.), performing arts ( theater , music , dance , etc.), and visual arts ( painting , sculpture , photography , filmmaking , etc.). Some definitions of

1988-463: A mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as philistine . […] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not. For many decades, there has been a growing public perception that a humanities education inadequately prepares graduates for employment. The common belief

2130-436: A new methodological approach. It was an experimental based approach to science, which sought no knowledge of formal or final causes . Yet, he was no materialist. He also talked of the two books of God, God's Word (Scripture) and God's work (nature). But he also added a theme that science should seek to control nature for the sake of humanity, and not seek to understand it just for the sake of understanding. In both these things he

2272-433: A particular path. In the liberal arts tradition, musicology is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills, including concentration and listening. Theatre (or theater) (Greek "theatron", θέατρον ) is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of

2414-577: A positive connotation. English author and playwright William Shakespeare used the term modern in the sense of "every-day, ordinary, commonplace". The word entered wide usage in the context of the late 17th-century quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns within the Académie Française , debating the question of "Is Modern culture superior to Classical (Græco–Roman) culture?" In the context of this debate,

2556-412: A proponent of experimentation, provided the archetypal example of how both Cartesian mathematics, geometry and theoretical deduction on the one hand, and Baconian experimental observation and induction on the other hand, together could lead to great advances in the practical understanding of regularities in nature . One common conception of modernity is the condition of Western history since

2698-454: A red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour brought about by light, shade and reflection). A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon). This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet and Japan. Religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The physical and rational certainties depicted by

2840-568: A second unity of style, infima Latinitas , translated into English as "Low Latin" (which in the one-period case would be identical to media Latinitas ). Du Cange in the glossarial part of his Glossary identifies some words as being used by purioris Latinitatis scriptores , such as Cicero (of the Golden Age). He has already said in the Preface that he rejects the ages scheme used by some: Golden Age, Silver Age, Brass Age, Iron Age. A second category are

2982-500: A single continuous style. Of the two-style interpretations the Late Latin period of Erich Auerbach and others is one of the shortest: "In the first half of the 6th century, which witnessed the beginning and end of Ostrogoth rule in Italy , Latin literature becomes medieval. Boethius was the last 'ancient' author and the role of Rome as the center of the ancient world, as communis patria ,

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3124-437: A social science because of its objective and measurable nature, while others view it as a humanities discipline because of its focus on values and interpretation. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. Law has been defined in various ways, such as "a system of rules", "an interpretive concept" for achieving justice, "an authority" to mediate between people's interests, or "the command of

3266-589: A source of reliable benchmarks to guide analysis of the state of the humanities in the United States. The 1980 United States Rockefeller Commission on the Humanities described the humanities in its report "The Humanities in American Life": Through the humanities we reflect on the fundamental question: What does it mean to be human? The humanities offer clues but never a complete answer. They reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual, and intellectual sense of

3408-449: A source of strength which lawmakers and leaders should account for and even encourage in some ways. Machiavelli's recommendations were sometimes influential upon kings and princes, but eventually came to be seen as favoring free republics over monarchies. Machiavelli in turn influenced Francis Bacon , Marchamont Needham , James Harrington , John Milton , David Hume , and many others. Important modern political doctrines which stem from

3550-575: A sovereign" backed by the threat of punishment. However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy is shaped by the practical application of ideas from many social science and humanities disciplines, including philosophy, history, political science, economics, anthropology, and sociology. Law is politics , because politicians create them. Law is philosophy , because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history 's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. Law

3692-481: A surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils , pen and ink , inked brushes , wax color pencils , crayons , charcoals , pastels , and markers . Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, hatching , crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling , and blending. A computer aided designer who excels in technical drawing

3834-622: A thesis that mass culture, while generating sources for "enchantment", more commonly produced "simulations" of "enchantments" and "disenchantments" for consumers. The era of modernity is characterised socially by industrialisation and the division of labour, and philosophically by "the loss of certainty , and the realization that certainty can never be established, once and for all". With new social and philosophical conditions arose fundamental new challenges. Various 19th-century intellectuals, from Auguste Comte to Karl Marx to Sigmund Freud , attempted to offer scientific and/or political ideologies in

3976-589: A universally accepted definition, but which has variably included all written work; writing that possesses literary merit; and language that emphasizes its own literary features, as opposed to ordinary language . Etymologically the term derives from the Latin word literatura /litteratura which means "writing formed with letters", although some definitions include spoken or sung texts . Literature can be classified as fiction or non-fiction ; poetry or prose . It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as

4118-471: A value to war and political violence, his lasting influence has been "tamed" so that useful conflict was deliberately converted as much as possible to formalized political struggles and the economic "conflict" encouraged between free, private enterprises. Starting with Thomas Hobbes , attempts were made to use the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed by Bacon and Descartes , applied to humanity and politics. Notable attempts to improve upon

4260-541: A variety of settings, from small dance studios to large theaters. Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social , cultural , aesthetic , artistic , and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance ) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet . The great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Japan , Greece and Rome , China , India , Greater Nepal , Mesopotamia and Mesoamerica . Ancient Greek art saw

4402-520: A veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correct proportions. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g., Zeus ' thunderbolt). The emphasis on spiritual and religious themes in Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages reflected the dominance of

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4544-463: A whole people has taken over history. This thought influenced the political (and aesthetic) thinking of Immanuel Kant , Edmund Burke and others and led to a critical review of modernist politics. On the conservative side, Burke argued that this understanding encouraged caution and avoidance of radical change. However more ambitious movements also developed from this insight into human culture, initially Romanticism and Historicism , and eventually both

4686-551: A world where irrationality, despair, loneliness, and death are as conspicuous as birth, friendship, hope, and reason. The Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences 2013 report "The Heart of the Matter" supports the notion of a broad " liberal arts education ", which includes study in disciplines from the natural sciences to the arts as well as the humanities. Many colleges provide such an education; some require it. The University of Chicago and Columbia University were among

4828-515: A written language, Late Latin is not the same as Vulgar Latin , or more specifically, the spoken Latin of the post Imperial period. The latter served as ancestor of the Romance languages . Although Late Latin reflects an upsurge of the use of Vulgar Latin vocabulary and constructs, it remains largely classical in its overall features, depending on the author who uses it. Some Late Latin writings are more literary and classical, but others are more inclined to

4970-482: Is "marked and defined by an obsession with ' evidence '," visual culture , and personal visibility. Generally, the large-scale social integration constituting modernity, involves the: But there does seem to be a necessary conflict between modern thought and the Biblical belief in revelation. All claims of revelation, modern science and philosophy seem agreed, must be repudiated, as mere relics of superstitious ages. ... [to

5112-478: Is Janus-faced." In 2020, Jason Crawford critiqued this recent historiography on enchantment and modernity. The historical evidence of "enchantments" for these studies, particularly in mass and print cultures, "might offer some solace to the citizens of a disenchanted world, but they don't really change the condition of that world." These "enchantments" offered a "troubled kind of unreality" increasingly separate from modernity. Per Osterrgard and James Fitchett advanced

5254-418: Is a society—more technically, a complex of institutions—which, unlike any preceding culture, lives in the future, rather than the past. Other writers have criticized such definitions as just being a listing of factors. They argue that modernity, contingently understood as marked by an ontological formation in dominance, needs to be defined much more fundamentally in terms of different ways of being. The modern

5396-636: Is also a specialized form of fine art in which the artists perform their work live to an audience. This is called Performance art . Most performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of props . Dance was often referred to as a plastic art during the Modern dance era. Musicology as an academic discipline can take a number of different paths, including historical musicology , music literature, ethnomusicology and music theory . Undergraduate music majors generally take courses in all of these areas, while graduate students focus on

5538-517: Is also economics, because any rule about contract , tort , property law , labour law , company law and many more can have long-lasting effects on how productivity is organised and the distribution of wealth. The noun law derives from the Old English word lagu , meaning something laid down or fixed, and the adjective legal comes from the Latin word LEX . Literature is a term that does not have

5680-529: Is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language ) between humans or animals ( bee dance , mating dance), and motion in inanimate objects ( the leaves danced in the wind ). Choreography is the process of creating dances, and the people who create choreography are known as choreographers. Choreographers use movement, music , and other elements to create expressive and artistic dances. They may work alone or with other artists to create new works, and their work can be presented in

5822-451: Is associated with (1) a certain set of attitudes towards the world, the idea of the world as open to transformation, by human intervention; (2) a complex of economic institutions, especially industrial production and a market economy; (3) a certain range of political institutions, including the nation-state and mass democracy. Largely as a result of these characteristics, modernity is vastly more dynamic than any previous type of social order. It

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5964-590: Is closely linked to the ethos of philosophical and aesthetic modernism ; political and intellectual currents that intersect with the Enlightenment; and subsequent developments such as existentialism , modern art , the formal establishment of social science , and contemporaneous antithetical developments such as Marxism . It also encompasses the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism, and shifts in attitudes associated with secularization , liberalization , modernization and post-industrial life . By

6106-404: Is commonly regarded as a social science . Based on current knowledge, it seems that all known cultures, both in the past and present, have some form of belief system or religious practice. While there may be isolated individuals or groups who do not practice any form of religion, it is not known if there has ever been a society that was entirely devoid of religious belief. The definition of religion

6248-450: Is contested. While the scientific study of language is known as linguistics and is generally considered a social science , a natural science or a cognitive science , the study of languages is also central to the humanities. A good deal of twentieth- and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language and to the question of whether, as Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from

6390-471: Is cut or shaved down to the desired form, like stone and wood. In the West, the history of the humanities can be traced to ancient Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens. During Roman times, the concept of the seven liberal arts evolved, involving grammar , rhetoric and logic (the trivium ), along with arithmetic , geometry , astronomy and music (the quadrivium ). These subjects formed

6532-403: Is distinguished from other ways of addressing these issues by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on reasoned argument, rather than experiments ( experimental philosophy being an exception). Philosophy used to be a very comprehensive term, including what have subsequently become separate disciplines, such as physics . (As Immanuel Kant noted, "Ancient Greek philosophy

6674-522: Is marked by "four fundamental values": Modernity rejects anything "old" and makes "novelty ... a criterion for truth." This results in a great "phobic response to anything antiquarian." In contrast, "classical Christian consciousness" resisted "novelty". Within Roman Catholicism, Pope Pius IX and Pope Pius X claim that Modernism (in a particular definition of the Catholic Church) is a danger to

6816-407: Is most corrupt. By corrupt, du Cange only meant that the language had resorted to nonclassical vocabulary and constructs from various sources, but his choice of words was unfortunate. It allowed the "corruption" to extend to other aspects of society, providing fuel for the fires of religious (Catholic vs. Protestant) and class (conservative vs. revolutionary) conflict. Low Latin passed from the heirs of

6958-506: Is no formalized register of colors. However, the Pantone system is widely used in the printing and design industry to standardize color reproduction. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, for example, collage . This began with cubism and is not painting in strict sense. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand , cement , straw or wood for their texture. Examples of these are

7100-546: Is no longer statistically significant. Humanities graduates can boost their incomes if they obtain advanced or professional degrees. Humanities majors are sought after in many areas of business, specifically for their critical thinking and problem-solving skills. While often considered "soft skills", humanities majors gain skills such as "include persuasive written and oral communication, creative problem-solving, teamwork, decision-making, self-management, and critical analysis". The Humanities Indicators , unveiled in 2009 by

7242-456: Is not universal, and different cultures may have different ideas about what constitutes religion. Religion may be characterized with a community since humans are social animals . Rituals are used to bound the community together. Social animals require rules. Ethics is a requirement of society, but not a requirement of religion. Shinto, Daoism, and other folk or natural religions do not have ethical codes. While some religions do include

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7384-415: Is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman . Literally, painting is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier (or medium ) and a binding agent (a glue ) to a surface (support) such as paper , canvas or a wall. However, when used in an artistic sense, it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing , composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest

7526-440: Is systematically collected information about the past . When used as the name of a field of study , history refers to the study and interpretation of the record of humans , societies , institutions, and any topic that has changed over time. Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the humanities. In modern academia , history can occasionally be classified as a social science , though this definition

7668-476: Is that graduates from such programs face underemployment and that incomes are too low for a humanities education to be worth the investment. Humanities graduates find employment in a wide variety of management and professional occupations. In Britain, for example, over 11,000 humanities majors found employment in the following occupations: Many humanities graduates may find themselves with no specific career goals upon graduation, which can lead to lower incomes in

7810-454: Is thus defined by the way in which prior valences of social life ... are reconstituted through a constructivist reframing of social practices in relation to basic categories of existence common to all humans: time, space, embodiment, performance and knowledge. The word 'reconstituted' here explicitly does not mean replaced. This means that modernity overlays earlier formations of traditional and customary life without necessarily replacing them. In

7952-451: Is understanding what media , "middle", and infima , "low", mean in this context. The term media is securely connected to Medieval Latin by du Cange's own terminology expounded in the Praefatio , such as scriptores mediae aetatis , "writers of the middle age". Du Cange's Glossary takes words from authors ranging from the Christian period (Late Latin) to the Renaissance , dipping into

8094-421: Is unnecessary for a command to be given and seen through to its effect. Consequent to debate about economic globalization , the comparative analysis of civilizations, and the post-colonial perspective of "alternative modernities", Shmuel Eisenstadt introduced the concept of "multiple modernities". Modernity as a "plural condition" is the central concept of this sociologic approach and perspective, which broadens

8236-590: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences , are the first comprehensive compilation of data about the humanities in the United States, providing scholars, policymakers and the public with detailed information on humanities education from primary to higher education, the humanities workforce, humanities funding and research, and public humanities activities. Modeled after the National Science Board's Science and Engineering Indicators, Humanities Indicators are

8378-1058: The Baháʼí Faith . Religions must adapt and change through the generations because they must remain relevant to the adherents. When traditional religions fail to address new concerns, then new religions will emerge. The performing arts differ from the visual arts in that the former uses the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials such as clay, metal, or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create some art object . Performing arts include acrobatics , busking , comedy , dance , film , magic , music , opera , juggling , marching arts , such as brass bands , and theatre . Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers, including actors, comedians , dancers , musicians , and singers . Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft . Performers often adapt their appearance , such as with costumes and stage makeup , etc. There

8520-675: The Christian era of the Later Roman Empire from the Pagan era of the Greco-Roman world . In the 6th century CE, Roman historian and statesman Cassiodorus appears to have been the first writer to use modernus ("modern") regularly to refer to his own age. The terms antiquus and modernus were used in a chronological sense in the Carolingian era . For example, a magister modernus referred to

8662-738: The Communism of Karl Marx , and the modern forms of nationalism inspired by the French Revolution , including, in one extreme, the German Nazi movement. On the other hand, the notion of modernity has been contested also due to its Euro-centric underpinnings. Postcolonial scholars have extensively critiqued the Eurocentric nature of modernity, particularly its portrayal as a linear process originating in Europe and subsequently spreading—or being imposed—on

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8804-474: The French Revolution (1789–1799), and the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804). A second phase of modernist political thinking begins with Rousseau, who questioned the natural rationality and sociality of humanity and proposed that human nature was much more malleable than had been previously thought. By this logic, what makes a good political system or a good man is completely dependent upon the chance path

8946-463: The Holy Roman Empire ) under Charlemagne . Toward the end of his reign his administration conducted some language reforms. The first recognition that Late Latin could not be understood by the masses and therefore was not a lingua franca was the decrees of 813 CE by synods at Mainz , Rheims Tours that from then on preaching was to be done in a language more understandable to the people, which

9088-573: The Judeo-Christian belief in the Biblical God as a mere relic of superstitious ages. It all started with Descartes' revolutionary methodic doubt , which transformed the concept of truth in the concept of certainty, whose only guarantor is no longer God or the Church, but Man's subjective judgement. Theologians have adapted in different ways to the challenge of modernity. Liberal theology , over perhaps

9230-554: The Western academic tradition, refers to the studies of the cultures of classical antiquity , namely Ancient Greek and Latin and the Ancient Greek and Roman cultures. Classical studies is considered one of the cornerstones of the humanities; however, its popularity declined during the 20th century. Nevertheless, the influence of classical ideas on many humanities disciplines, such as philosophy and literature, remains strong. History

9372-491: The classical period if a word originated there. Either media et infima Latinitas refers to one age, which must be the middle age covering the entire post-classical range, or it refers to two consecutive periods, infima Latinitas and media Latinitas . Both interpretations have their adherents. In the former case, the infimae appears extraneous; it recognizes the corruptio of the corrupta Latinitas which du Cange said his Glossary covered. The two-period case postulates

9514-467: The comparative method and comparative research . Other methods used in the humanities include hermeneutics , source criticism , esthetic interpretation , and speculative reason . The word humanities comes from the Renaissance Latin phrase studia humanitatis , which translates to study of humanity . This phrase was used to refer to the study of classical literature and language, which

9656-407: The inferioris Latinitatis scriptores , such as Apuleius (Silver Age). The third and main category are the infimae Latinitatis scriptores , who must be post-classical; that is, Late Latin, unless they are also medieval. His failure to state which authors are low leaves the issue unresolved. He does, however, give some idea of the source of his infima , which is a classical word, "lowest", of which

9798-580: The late 19th and 20th centuries , modernist art, politics, science and culture has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but almost every populated area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the West and globalization . The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism , capitalism , urbanization and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress . Wars and other perceived problems of this era , many of which come from

9940-425: The novel , short story or drama ; and works are often categorised according to historical periods, or according to their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations ( genre ). Philosophy—etymologically, the "love of wisdom"—is generally the study of problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, justification, truth, justice, right and wrong, beauty, validity, mind, and language. Philosophy

10082-485: The vernacular . As such it is an important source of information about changes in the spoken language, while not being a simple replication of the state of the oral language at the time. Also, Late Latin is not identical to Christian patristic Latin, used in the theological writings of the early Christian fathers. While Christian writings used a subset of Late Latin, pagans , such as Ammianus Marcellinus or Macrobius , also wrote extensively in Late Latin, especially in

10224-400: The 'end of history', of post-modernity, 'second modernity' and 'surmodernity', or otherwise to articulate the intuition of a radical change in the arrangement of human cohabitation and in social conditions under which life-politics is nowadays conducted, is the fact that the long effort to accelerate the speed of movement has presently reached its 'natural limit'. Power can move with the speed of

10366-608: The 16th and 17th centuries, Copernicus , Kepler , Galileo and others developed a new approach to physics and astronomy which changed the way people came to think about many things. Copernicus presented new models of the Solar System which no longer placed humanity's home, Earth, in the centre. Kepler used mathematics to discuss physics and described regularities of nature this way. Galileo actually made his famous proof of uniform acceleration in freefall using mathematics. Francis Bacon , especially in his Novum Organum , argued for

10508-488: The 16th to 18th centuries are usually described as early modern , while the long 19th century corresponds to modern history proper. While it includes a wide range of interrelated historical processes and cultural phenomena (from fashion to modern warfare ), it can also refer to the subjective or existential experience of the conditions they produce, and their ongoing impact on human culture, institutions, and politics. As an analytical concept and normative idea, modernity

10650-442: The 1830s, magic still remained part of the discourse—now called 'natural magic,' to be sure, but no less 'marvelous' for being the result of determinate and predictable natural processes." Mass culture, despite its "superficialities, irrationalities, prejudices, and problems," became "a vital source of contingent and rational enchantments as well." Occultism could contribute to the conclusions reached by modern psychologists and advanced

10792-436: The 19th-century Enlightenment were shattered not only by new discoveries of relativity by Einstein and of unseen psychology by Freud , but also by unprecedented technological development. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Drawing is a means of making a picture , using a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on

10934-470: The Christian faith. Pope Pius IX compiled a Syllabus of Errors published on December 8, 1864, to describe his objections to Modernism. Pope Pius X further elaborated on the characteristics and consequences of Modernism, from his perspective, in an encyclical entitled " Pascendi dominici gregis " (Feeding the Lord's Flock) on September 8, 1907. Pascendi Dominici Gregis states that the principles of Modernism, taken to

11076-551: The Greco-Roman civilization. The term modernity , first coined in the 1620s, in this context assumed the implication of a historical epoch following the Renaissance, in which the achievements of antiquity were surpassed. Modernity has been associated with cultural and intellectual movements of 1436–1789 and extending to the 1970s or later. According to Marshall Berman , modernity is periodized into three conventional phases dubbed "Early", "Classical", and "Late" by Peter Osborne: In

11218-523: The Italian renaissance to the new philologists of the northern and Germanic climes, where it became a different concept. In Britain, Gildas ' view that Britain fell to the Anglo-Saxons because it was morally slack was already well known to the scholarly world. The northern Protestants now worked a role reversal; if the language was "corrupt", it must be symptomatic of a corrupt society, which indubitably led to

11360-722: The Silver Age and then goes on to define other ages first by dynasty and then by century (see under Classical Latin ). In subsequent editions he subsumed all periods under three headings: the First Period ( Old Latin ), the Second Period (the Golden Age) and the Third Period, "the Imperial Age", subdivided into the Silver Age, the 2nd century, and the 3rd–6th centuries together, which was a recognition of Late Latin, as he sometimes refers to

11502-437: The West, but elsewhere white may be. Some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe , Kandinsky , Isaac Newton , have written their own colour theories . Moreover, the use of language is only a generalization for a colour equivalent. The word " red ", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum. Unlike music, where notes such as C or C# are universally accepted, there

11644-462: The ancients ( anciens ) and moderns ( modernes ) were proponents of opposing views, the former believing that contemporary writers could do no better than imitate the genius of Classical antiquity, while the latter, first with Charles Perrault (1687), proposed that more than a mere Renaissance of ancient achievements, the Age of Reason had gone beyond what had been possible in the Classical period of

11786-491: The author. Its origins are obscure, but the Latin expression media et infima Latinitas sprang into public notice in 1678 in the title of a Glossary (by today's standards a dictionary) by Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange . The multivolume set had many editions and expansions by other authors subsequently. The title varies somewhat; most commonly used was Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis . It has been translated by expressions of widely different meanings. The uncertainty

11928-423: The bulk of medieval education, with the emphasis being on the humanities as skills or "ways of doing". A major shift occurred with the Renaissance humanism of the fifteenth century, when the humanities began to be regarded as subjects to study rather than practice, with a corresponding shift away from traditional fields into areas such as literature and history ( studia humaniora ). In the 20th century, this view

12070-405: The church. However, in the Renaissance , a renewed focus on the physical world was reflected in art forms that depicted the human body and landscape in a more naturalistic and three-dimensional way. Eastern art has generally worked in a style akin to Western medieval art , namely a concentration on surface patterning and local colour (meaning the plain colour of an object, such as basic red for

12212-459: The comparative degree is inferior , "lower". In the preface, he opposes the style of the scriptores aevi inferioris (Silver Age) to the elegantes sermones , "elegant speech", the high and low styles of Latinitas defined by the classical authors. Apparently, du Cange was basing his low style on sermo humilis , the simplified speech devised by Late Latin Christian writers to address the ordinary people. Humilis (humble, humility) means "low", "of

12354-417: The concept of deities, others do not. Therefore, the supernatural does not necessarily require the existence of deities. Rather, it can be broadly defined as any phenomena that cannot be explained by science or reason. Magical thinking creates explanations not available for empirical verification. Stories or myths are narratives being both didactic and entertaining. They are necessary for understanding

12496-419: The context of art history , modernity (Fr. modernité ) has a more limited sense, modern art covering the period of c.  1860–1970. Use of the term in this sense is attributed to Charles Baudelaire , who in his 1863 essay " The Painter of Modern Life ", designated the "fleeting, ephemeral experience of life in an urban metropolis", and the responsibility art has to capture that experience. In this sense,

12638-470: The definition of "modernity" from exclusively denoting Western European culture to a culturally relativistic definition, thereby: "Modernity is not Westernization, and its key processes and dynamics can be found in all societies". Central to modernity is emancipation from religion, specifically the hegemony of Christianity (mainly Roman Catholicism ), and the consequent secularization. According to writers like Fackenheim and Husserl, modern thought repudiates

12780-510: The early part of the period. Late Latin formed when large numbers of non-Latin-speaking peoples on the borders of the empire were being subsumed and assimilated, and the rise of Christianity was introducing a heightened divisiveness in Roman society, creating a greater need for a standard language for communicating between different socioeconomic registers and widely separated regions of the sprawling empire. A new and more universal speech evolved from

12922-487: The early stages of their career. On the other hand, graduates from more career-oriented programs often find jobs more quickly. However, the long-term career prospects of humanities graduates may be similar to those of other graduates, as research shows that by five years after graduation, they generally find a career path that appeals to them. There is empirical evidence that graduates from humanities programs earn less than graduates from other university programs. However,

13064-401: The effects of rapid change , and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms , have led to many reactions against modern development . Optimism and belief in constant progress has been most recently criticized by postmodernism while the dominance of Western Europe and Anglo-America over other continents has been criticized by postcolonial theory . In

13206-412: The electronic signal – and so the time required for the movement of its essential ingredients has been reduced to instantaneity. For all practical purposes, power has become truly exterritorial, no longer bound, or even slowed down, by the resistance of space (the advent of cellular telephones may well serve as a symbolic 'last blow' delivered to the dependency on space: even the access to a telephone market

13348-405: The empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields. Humanities graduates also earn more as their careers progress; ten years after graduation, the income difference between humanities graduates and graduates from other university programs

13490-543: The end of the Silver Age as the death of Hadrian at 138 CE. His classification of styles left a century between that event and his final period, the 3rd–6th centuries CE, which was in other systems being considered Late Antiquity. Starting with Charles Thomas Crutwell's A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius , which first came out in 1877, English literary historians have included

13632-456: The expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. Painting has been used throughout history to express spiritual and religious ideas, from mythological scenes on pottery to the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel , to body art. Colour is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in

13774-474: The first schools to require an extensive core curriculum in philosophy, literature, and the arts for all students. Other colleges with nationally recognized, mandatory programs in the liberal arts are Fordham University , St. John's College , Saint Anselm College and Providence College . Prominent proponents of liberal arts in the United States have included Mortimer J. Adler and E. D. Hirsch, Jr. In 1950, 1.2% of Americans aged 22 had earned

13916-434: The fugitive, the contingent". Advancing technological innovation, affecting artistic technique and the means of manufacture, changed rapidly the possibilities of art and its status in a rapidly changing society. Photography challenged the place of the painter and painting. Architecture was transformed by the availability of steel for structures. From conservative Protestant theologian Thomas C. Oden 's perspective, modernity

14058-409: The ground". The Christian writers were not interested in the elegant speech of the best or classical Latin, which belonged to their aristocratic pagan opponents. Instead, they preferred a humbler style lower in correctness, so that they might better deliver the gospel to the vulgus or "common people". Low Latin in this view is the Latin of the two periods in which it has the least degree of purity, or

14200-573: The human predicament. Some other possible characteristics of religion are pollutions and purification, the sacred and the profane, sacred texts, religious institutions and organizations, and sacrifice and prayer. Some of the major problems that religions confront, and attempts to answer are chaos, suffering, evil, and death. The non-founder religions are Hinduism , Shinto , and native or folk religions . Founder religions are Judaism , Christianity , Islam , Confucianism , Daoism , Mormonism , Jainism , Zoroastrianism , Buddhism , Sikhism , and

14342-520: The humanities accounted for 15% of the bachelor's degrees awarded by colleges and universities in the United States. As of 2022, they accounted for less than 9%. Researchers in the humanities have developed numerous large- and small-scale digital corporations, such as digitized collections of historical texts, along with the digital tools and methods to analyze them. Their aim is both to uncover new knowledge about corpora and to visualize research data in new and revealing ways. Much of this activity occurs in

14484-547: The humanities and closer to the formal sciences , becoming much more analytic. Analytic philosophy is marked by emphasis on the use of logic and formal methods of reasoning, conceptual analysis, and the use of symbolic and/or mathematical logic , as contrasted with the Continental style of philosophy . This method of inquiry is largely indebted to the work of philosophers such as Gottlob Frege , Bertrand Russell , G.E. Moore and Ludwig Wittgenstein . Religious Studies

14626-456: The humanities are called humanities scholars or sometimes humanists . The term humanist also describes the philosophical position of humanism , which antihumanist scholars in the humanities reject. Renaissance scholars and artists are also known as humanists . Some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of literature , history , foreign language , and art . Human disciplines like history and language mainly use

14768-485: The humanities encompass law and religion due to their shared characteristics, such as the study of language and culture. However, these definitions are not universally accepted, as law and religion are often considered professional subjects rather than humanities subjects. Professional subjects, like some social sciences, are sometimes classified as being part of both the liberal arts and professional development education, whereas humanities subjects are generally confined to

14910-488: The hypocrisy of European modernity, which promotes ideals of progress and rationality while concealing how much of Europe’s economic growth was built on the exploitation, violence, and dehumanization integral to colonial domination. Similarly, Bhambra argued that beyond economic advancement, Western powers "modernized" through colonialism, demonstrating that developments such as the welfare systems in England were largely enabled by

15052-419: The main elements: Classical Latin, Christian Latin, which featured sermo humilis (ordinary speech) in which the people were to be addressed, and all the various dialects of Vulgar Latin . The linguist Antoine Meillet wrote: "Without the exterior appearance of the language being much modified, Latin became in the course of the imperial epoch a new language... Serving as some sort of lingua franca to

15194-493: The mainstream philologists of Latin literature. A few writers on the periphery still mention it, influenced by the dictionaries and classic writings of former times. As Teuffel's scheme of the Golden Age and the Silver Age is the generally accepted one, the canonical list of authors should begin just after the end of the Silver Age, regardless of what 3rd century event is cited as the beginning; otherwise there are gaps. Teuffel gave

15336-427: The medieval and Aristotelian style of analyzing politics by comparison with ideas about how things should be, in favour of realistic analysis of how things really are. He also proposed that an aim of politics is to control one's own chance or fortune, and that relying upon providence actually leads to evil. Machiavelli argued, for example, that violent divisions within political communities are unavoidable, but can also be

15478-534: The methodological approach of Hobbes include those of John Locke , Spinoza , Giambattista Vico , and Rousseau. David Hume made what he considered to be the first proper attempt at trying to apply Bacon's scientific method to political subjects, rejecting some aspects of the approach of Hobbes. Modernist republicanism openly influenced the foundation of republics during the Dutch Revolt (1568–1609), English Civil War (1642–1651), American Revolution (1775–1783),

15620-478: The mid- or late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely Postmodernity (1930s/1950s/1990s–present). Other theorists, however, regard the period from the late 20th century to the present as merely another phase of modernity; Zygmunt Bauman calls this phase liquid modernity , Giddens labels it high modernity (see High modernism ). Politically, modernity's earliest phase starts with Niccolò Machiavelli 's works which openly rejected

15762-506: The mid-15th century, or roughly the European development of movable type and the printing press . In this context the modern society is said to develop over many periods, and to be influenced by important events that represent breaks in the continuity. After modernist political thinking had already become widely known in France, Rousseau 's re-examination of human nature led to a new criticism of

15904-550: The new Machiavellian realism include Mandeville 's influential proposal that " Private Vices by the dextrous Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into Publick Benefits " (the last sentence of his Fable of the Bees ), and also the doctrine of a constitutional separation of powers in government, first clearly proposed by Montesquieu . Both these principles are enshrined within the constitutions of most modern democracies . It has been observed that while Machiavelli's realism saw

16046-447: The only men of letters, and were at the same time the most ignorant and futile mortals in the world. Under these times of darkness, we must, therefore, rank that Latin, which is called lingua ecclesiastica , and which we cannot read without disgust. As 'Low Latin' tends to be muddled with Vulgar Latin , Late Latin, and Medieval Latin , and has unfortunate extensions of meaning into the sphere of socio-economics, it has gone out of use by

16188-433: The other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as opera , ballet , mime , kabuki , classical Indian dance , Chinese opera , mummers' plays , and pantomime . Dance (from Old French dancier , perhaps from Frankish ) generally refers to human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social , spiritual or performance setting. Dance

16330-434: The past 200 years or so, has tried, in various iterations, to accommodate, or at least tolerate, modern doubt in expounding Christian revelation, while Traditionalist Catholics , Eastern Orthodox and fundamentalist Protestant thinkers and clerics have tried to fight back, denouncing skepticism of every kind. Modernity aimed towards "a progressive force promising to liberate humankind from ignorance and irrationality". In

16472-470: The period falling between the 1980s and 1990s; the following era is often referred to as " postmodernity ". The term " contemporary history " is also used to refer to the post-1945 timeframe, without assigning it to either the modern or postmodern era. (Thus "modern" may be used as a name of a particular era in the past, as opposed to meaning "the current era".) Depending on the field, modernity may refer to different time periods or qualities. In historiography,

16614-462: The rest of the world. Dipesh Chakrabarty contends that European historicism positions Europe as the exclusive birthplace of modernity, placing European thinkers and institutions at the center of Enlightenment, progress, and innovation. This narrative marginalizes non-Western thinkers, ideas and achievements, reducing them to either deviations from or delays in an otherwise supposedly universal trajectory of modern development. Frantz Fanon similarly exposes

16756-409: The rule of Gothic kings prevailed. Subsequently, the term Imperial Latin was dropped by historians of Latin literature, although it may be seen in marginal works. The Silver Age was extended a century, and the four centuries following made use of Late Latin. Low Latin is a vague and often pejorative term that might refer to any post-classical Latin from Late Latin through Renaissance Latin, depending on

16898-415: The sake of progress—may in many cases have what critical theory says is a negative and dehumanising effect on modern society. Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant. What prompts so many commentators to speak of

17040-473: The scenario to fit their ideology that the church needed to be purified of corruption. For example, Baron Bielfeld , a Prussian officer and comparative Latinist, characterised the low in Low Latin, which he saw as medieval Latin, as follows: The fourth age of the Latin tongue is that of the remainder of the middle age, and the 1st centuries of modern times, during which the language fell by degrees into so great

17182-510: The second phase, Berman draws upon the growth of modern technologies such as the newspaper, telegraph and other forms of mass media. There was a great shift into modernization in the name of industrial capitalism. Finally in the third phase, modernist arts and individual creativity marked the beginning of a new modernist age as it combats oppressive politics, economics as well as other social forces including mass media. Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard , believe that modernity ended in

17324-557: The spare century in Silver Latin. Accordingly, the latter ends with the death of the last of the five good emperors in 180 CE. Other authors use other events, such as the end of the Nervan–Antonine dynasty in 192 CE or later events. A good round date of 200  CE gives a canonical list of nearly no overlap. The transition between Late Latin and Medieval Latin is by no means as easy to assess. Taking that media et infima Latinitas

17466-452: The starting point is the same as Marx, feudal society, Durkheim emphasizes far less the rising of the bourgeoisie as a new revolutionary class and very seldom refers to capitalism as the new mode of production implemented by it. The fundamental impulse to modernity is rather industrialism accompanied by the new scientific forces. In the work of Max Weber , modernity is closely associated with the processes of rationalization and disenchantment of

17608-461: The term already was in professional use by English classicists in the early 19th century. Instances of English vernacular use of the term may also be found from the 18th century. The term Late Antiquity meaning post-classical and pre-medieval had currency in English well before then. Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel 's first edition (1870) of History of Roman Literature defined an early period, the Golden Age,

17750-426: The term refers to "a particular relationship to time, one characterized by intense historical discontinuity or rupture, openness to the novelty of the future, and a heightened sensitivity to what is unique about the present". The Late Latin adjective modernus , a derivation from the adverb modo ("presently, just now", also "method"), is attested from the 5th century CE, at first in the context of distinguishing

17892-572: The time of Bede , i.e. referring to the time after the foundation of the Order of Saint Benedict and/or the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The Latin adjective was adopted in Middle French , as moderne , by the 15th century, and hence, in the early Tudor period , into Early Modern English . The early modern word meant "now existing", or "pertaining to the present times", not necessarily with

18034-457: The total number of Americans with college degrees has increased significantly, resulting in a greater number of people with degrees in the humanities as well. The proportion of degrees awarded in the humanities has declined in recent decades, even as the overall number of people with humanities degrees has increased. In 1954, 36% of Harvard undergraduates majored in the humanities, but in 2012, only 20% took that course of study. As recently as 1993,

18176-422: The traditional liberal arts education . Although sociology , anthropology , archaeology , linguistics and psychology share some similarities with the humanities, these are often considered social sciences . Similarly, disciplines such as finance , business administration , political science , economics , and global studies have closer ties to the social sciences rather than the humanities. Scholars in

18318-436: The value of reasoning itself which in turn led to a new understanding of less rationalistic human activities, especially the arts. The initial influence was upon the movements known as German Idealism and Romanticism in the 18th and 19th century. Modern art therefore belongs only to the later phases of modernity. For this reason art history keeps the term modernity distinct from the terms Modern Age and Modernism – as

18460-401: The vocabulary we use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have studied the development of languages across time. Literature, covering a variety of uses of language including prose forms (such as the novel ), poetry and drama , also lies at the heart of the modern humanities curriculum. College-level programs in

18602-421: The wake of secularisation. Modernity may be described as the "age of ideology". For Marx, what was the basis of modernity was the emergence of capitalism and the revolutionary bourgeoisie, which led to an unprecedented expansion of productive forces and to the creation of the world market. Durkheim tackled modernity from a different angle by following the ideas of Saint-Simon about the industrial system. Although

18744-458: The wealth extracted through colonial exploitation. In sociology, a discipline that arose in direct response to the social problems of modernity, the term most generally refers to the social conditions, processes, and discourses consequent to the Age of Enlightenment . In the most basic terms, British sociologist Anthony Giddens describes modernity as ...a shorthand term for modern society, or industrial civilization. Portrayed in more detail, it

18886-569: The works of Jean Dubuffet or Anselm Kiefer . Modern and contemporary art has moved away from the historic value of craft in favour of concept ( conceptual art ); this has led some e.g. Joseph Kosuth to say that painting, as a serious art form, is dead, although this has not deterred the majority of artists from continuing to practise it either as whole or part of their work. Sculpture involves creating three-dimensional forms out of various materials. These typically include malleable substances like clay and metal but may also extend to material that

19028-537: The world. Critical theorists such as Theodor Adorno and Zygmunt Bauman propose that modernity or industrialization represents a departure from the central tenets of the Enlightenment and towards nefarious processes of alienation , such as commodity fetishism and the Holocaust . Contemporary sociological critical theory presents the concept of rationalization in even more negative terms than those Weber originally defined. Processes of rationalization—as progress for

19170-495: The writings of those times as "late". Imperial Latin went on into English literature; Fowler's History of Roman Literature mentions it in 1903. The beginning and end of Imperial Latin is not well defined. Politically, the excluded Augustan Period is the paradigm of imperiality, but the style cannot be grouped with either the Silver Age or with Late Latin. In 6th-century Italy, the Western Roman Empire no longer existed and

19312-455: Was at an end." In essence, the lingua franca of classical vestiges was doomed when Italy was overrun by the Goths, but its momentum carried it one lifetime further, ending with the death of Boethius in 524 CE. Not everyone agrees that the lingua franca came to an end with the fall of Rome, but argue that it continued and became the language of the reinstituted Carolingian Empire (predecessor of

19454-465: Was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, and logic.") Today, the main fields of philosophy are logic , ethics , metaphysics , and epistemology . Still, it continues to overlap with other disciplines. The field of semantics , for example, brings philosophy into contact with linguistics . Since the early twentieth century, philosophy in English-speaking universities has moved away from

19596-618: Was in turn challenged by the postmodernist movement, which sought to redefine the humanities in more egalitarian terms suitable for a democratic society since the Greek and Roman societies in which the humanities originated were elitist and aristocratic. A distinction is usually drawn between the social sciences and the humanities. Classicist Allan Bloom writes in The Closing of the American Mind (1987): Social science and humanities have

19738-510: Was influenced by Machiavelli's earlier criticism of medieval Scholasticism , and his proposal that leaders should aim to control their own fortune. Influenced both by Galileo's new physics and Bacon, René Descartes argued soon afterward that mathematics and geometry provided a model of how scientific knowledge could be built up in small steps. He also argued openly that human beings themselves could be understood as complex machines. Isaac Newton , influenced by Descartes, but also, like Bacon,

19880-435: Was one style, Mantello in a recent handbook asserts of "the Latin used in the middle ages" that it is "here interpreted broadly to include late antiquity and therefore to extend from c. AD 200 to 1500." Although recognizing "late antiquity" he does not recognize Late Latin. It did not exist and Medieval Latin began directly from 200 CE. In this view all differences from Classical Latin are bundled as though they evolved through

20022-522: Was seen as an important aspect of a refined education in the Renaissance . In its usage in the early 15th century, the studia humanitatis was a course of studies that consisted of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy, primarily derived from the study of Latin and Greek classics. The word humanitas also gave rise to the Renaissance Italian neologism umanisti , whence "humanist", " Renaissance humanism ". Classics , in

20164-421: Was stated by Tours Canon 17 as rustica Romana lingua , identified as Romance , the descendant of Vulgar Latin . Late Latin as defined by Meillet was at an end; however, Pucci's Harrington's Mediaeval Latin sets the end of Late Latin when Romance began to be written, "Latin retired to the cloister" and " Romanitas lived on only in the fiction of the Holy Roman Empire ." The final date given by those authors

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