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48-419: As a young child he was named Ndesalasi, meaning "troublemaker". As an adult he was named Mtwa Mkwava Mkwavinyika Mahinya Yilimwiganga Mkali Kuvagosi Kuvadala Tage Matenengo Manwiwage Seguniwagula Gumganga, meaning: "A leader who takes control of the forests, who is aggressive to men and polite to women, who is unpredictable and unbeatable, and who has the power that it is only death who can take him away." Mkwawa

96-404: A center for smuggling slaves across the narrow channel to Pemba, in evasion of Royal Navy warships. By the middle of the nineteenth century, large caravans were regularly transporting both slaves and ivory to Pangani Bay. Caravans "herded" (- fuga ) slaves to Pangani Town to work or be sent abroad, according to Mzee Mchande, a local elder. Large-scale production of coconuts , sugar , and sisal

144-549: A growing population). As an alternative, plantation enslavement might have hindered local food production and/or hunting opportunities. The plantations were worked by slave labor, and Pangani also became an important center of the slave trade, shipping captives taken in the wars attendant on the collapse of the Shambaa kingdom in the Usambara mountains to the plantations of Pemba and Zanzibar. Pangani's modern town came to prominence in

192-448: A profit. This was never going to be an easy task because many crops did not adapt well to plantation cultivation, labour was still difficult to find and keep, and commodity prices fluctuated greatly. Unlike most, Lautherborn was more successful. He demonstrated the commercial viability of sisal, kept workers on the job during a labour shortage, and received praise from all quarters for his efficient plantation management. On 13 July 1916

240-607: A result of this area's long history of exploitation and more recent diaporas (related to the development of cash crops). During the eighteen years (1888–1906) of Christian Lautherborn's employment as a plantation manager for the German East Africa Company (DOAG), plantation agriculture was largely recognised as the most effective strategy for advancing the new colony. Indeed, one of the main justifications for colonial expansion in German East Africa and other places

288-725: The Eid al-Adha which was one of the most important Islamic holidays. The unrest in Pangani triggered the two-year uprising of the coastal population led by Buschiri bin Salim , in which the rule of the GEAC completely collapsed. The German Empire deployed marine infantry from ships of the Imperial German Navy in the Indian Ocean and sent Hermann Wissmann as Reichskommissar of German East Africa , who

336-716: The Hehe people , and was killed at the Battle of Lugalo . Emil von Zelewski was born in Bendargau in the Pomeranian district of Neustadt . He joined the Prussian Army and served in the 99th Infantry Regiment at Posen in 1881. In 1886 he retired from the Imperial German Army as a first lieutenant and entered the service of the German East Africa Company (GEAC). In August 1888 he

384-776: The Persian Gulf during the Zanjian period and black-and-yellow ceramics from the Red Sea during the Swahili eras is evidence of the old maritime trade history in Pangani Bay. The pottery in Zanjian and Swahili villages in Pangani Bay shared characteristics with that of sites on the East African coast ( Shanga , Kilwa , and Kaole ), as well as its hinterland ( Mombo ), in addition to the recognised internal cultural continuity. Such evidence suggests that

432-633: The Warsaw Uprising . His biographer Blood takes the view that the uncle's fate was seen as a family disgrace because he was defeated in a fight against "inferior" Africans. This was one of the driving forces behind the atrocities to which the nephew felt were called for. Pangani Pangani ( Mji wa Pangani , in Swahili ) is a historic town and capital of Pangani District in the Tanga Region of Tanzania . The town lies 45 km (28 mi) south of

480-455: The Germans and killed Zelewski. On 28 October 1894, the Germans, under the new commissioner Colonel Freiherr Friedrich von Schele , attacked Mkwawa's fortress at Kalenga. Although they took the fort, Mkwawa managed to escape. Subsequently, Mkwawa conducted a campaign of guerrilla warfare , harassing the Germans until 1898 when, on 19 July, he was surrounded and shot himself to avoid capture at

528-616: The Palaeolithic era. They fashioned tools out of quartz river pebbles by hammering them with simple, forceful blows. Southwest of Bweni, the escarpment is covered in debris from the production and usage of stone tools. Lithic artefacts from more recent sites show that populations that used iron for agriculture continued to use (or even went back to) stone technologies after making the shift to an agricultural lifestyle, occasionally employing rare raw materials from upriver. By 600–1000 C.E., if not earlier, farming villages using iron began to appear in

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576-605: The Pangani coast and communities in the Indian Ocean took place, but at a minor level. Thus, the "Golden Age" of the Swahili (1250/1350-1550 C.E., but especially the earlier centuries within this range) influenced littoral settlers in northeastern Tanzania, although not nearly to the extent felt at Kilwa on the southern Swahili coast (where the gold trade flourished 1200-1350 C.E.) or at Mombasa and Malindi in Kenya. Late in this era, Tongoni as well as Swahili towns on Tanga Island (in

624-487: The Royal Navy monitor HMS  Severn bombarded Pangani. On 23 July the Germans surrendered the town to British land and naval forces. The Mauya plantations no longer grow sugar, but produce much coconut and betel-nut. Pangani was once a secondary center of the sisal industry, servicing sisal plantations to the north and south of town. Pangani also has a fishing industry. In recent years beach resorts north and south of

672-471: The Schutztruppe to ambush them. On 17 August 1891 Zelewski, who renounced reconnaissance patrols, marched right into the middle of Mkwawa's army; camouflaged in bush and tall grass. Near Rugaro he was attacked by up to 3,000 Hehe. Zelewski and most of his men were dead within ten minutes. Two German lieutenants and two NCOs managed to escape with two Effendis , 62 Askaris, 74 porters, four donkeys and some of

720-455: The area. Yet the realities of a complicated and frequently contentious scenario quickly caused this initially straightforward ambition to fail. In 1888, Pangani was the center of an armed movement to resist German colonial conquest of the mainland Tanzanian coast. The local leader of the resistance was Abushiri ibn Salim al-Harthi , a Swahili-speaker born in Zanzibar who owned a small estate at

768-436: The bay near Tanga Town) with monumental Swahili architecture began to grow in importance. Archaeologists have also found the remains of small 15th century Swahili settlements on the bluffs just north of Pangani at Muhembo , According to the research, Pangani Bay's first inhabitant's Zanjian traditions served as the cradle of later Swahili culture . From the Zanjian to the Swahili periods, local people continued to practise

816-555: The capture of Pangani, Zelewski and his men committed numerous atrocities. They took away men from manual labour, raped women, and shot anyone who resisted. On 1 April 1891 he succeeded Wissmann as commander in German East Africa. By Imperial law of 22 March 1891 the Schutztruppe for German East Africa was established as a military force under Imperial control and Wissmann's private group was integrated into it. After conquering

864-611: The city of Tanga , at the mouth of the Pangani River in which the town is named after. Administrately the town Pangani is situated within two wards, Pangani Mashariki and Pangani Magharibi . The town is currently the largest settlement in Pangani District and is a major tourist attraction in Tanga region and is a home to Muhembo , a Tanzanian National Historic Site . The first people to live in Pangani Bay were hunter-gatherers during

912-484: The coast was different after 1550 C.E. In contrast to Mombasa, the majority of coastal cities shrank in population, lost their once-dominant status, or even fell into ruin. By 1600 C.E. and 1850 C.E., respectively, pottery from Post-Swahili and Post-Post-Swahili settlements were widespread. The initial phase of these at Pangani was characterised by diffuse settlement. Compared to sites from earlier, Swahili times, those that included only Post-Swahili materials were found during

960-520: The coast, the Germans tried to consolidate their power inland as well. To do this, it was primarily necessary to secure the caravan routes between the coast and Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika . They roughly correspond to the line on which the Mittellandbahn was later built. In this area, the German colonial power encountered the expanding sphere of influence of the Hehe people , who had brought large parts of

1008-443: The insurrection was ultimately hanged by the Germans. The British established indirect rule following World War I. Residents still living there have memories connected to these unique interactions, exploitations, and acts of violence that shape their legacy. Within months of Lautherbonrn's arrival, a coastal uprising (1888–1890) broke out, driving him and the other Europeans out of Pangani. Lautherborn relocated to Bagamoyo , one of

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1056-463: The luggage. A few years later, a small pyramid with a memorial plaque for the German fallen soldiers was erected at the site of the battle. A nephew of Emil von Zelewski was Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski , who, as a SS-Obergruppenführer , was involved in anti-partisan operations and was significantly involved in extermination campaigns in the Soviet Union. In August 1944 he ordered the suppression of

1104-645: The mainland strip of Zanzibar and levied customs duties. When the GEAC tried to take over the administration of the coastal towns in August 1888, it met with broad rejection from the population, who saw themselves betrayed by the sultan. Zelewski's imperious behavior towards the Sultan's local wali and the disregard for the Sultan's flag when the GEAC flag was raised led to open outrage. The Austrian Consul Rudolf Fuchs in Zanzibar then reported to his Foreign Minister in Vienna, ... that

1152-496: The majority of their pottery, trading, and culinary practises. Minor alterations are also discernible, most likely due to ongoing interactions with bordering groups along the shore. From the Zanjian to the Swahili periods, pottery with comparable form and ornamentation was employed. Shellfish evidence reveals patterns of food collecting by the first inhabitants and the kinds of foods that were consumed, suggesting both change and continuity. The discovery of Sasanian Islamic wares from

1200-507: The mid 19th century, when, under nominal Zanzibari rule, it was a major terminus of caravan routes to the deep interior. From the 1860s onward townspeople established large plantations of sugar and coconut in Mauya, along the banks of the river just west of town. After Sultan Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar signed treaties with Great Britain outlawing the ocean-going trade in slaves in 1873, Pangani became

1248-498: The need to set themselves apart from people who lived in the interior in order to consolidate their authority and safeguard expanding trade monopolies. Surface investigations revealed 18 Swahili sites, including Mnyongeni, Mtakani, and Kumbamtoni (1250–1550 C.E.). Villagers in Muhembo and Tongoni were constructing coral structures and going to mosques for prayer by 1400 C.E. These were the two biggest towns in their respective regions at

1296-458: The northern shore dominated the economy during this time. on this model, resurrected leadership anchored on Islamic doctrine , iconography, and emulation increased trade monopolies and sparked close ties with other groups in the Indian Ocean through trade. During this time, it is likely that a rigid, emic idea of the African hinterland developed as wealthy coastal Swahili town dwellers ( waungwana ) saw

1344-488: The occupied political hub. Increased foreign engagement is evidenced by the abundance of novel glass bead kinds and numerous pottery from India, China, and Europe found at Gombero. Villagers in Gombero and other locations along Tanzania's northeastern coast (such as Tongoni, Excavation Unit 3 and Mtakani, Site 51a, Excavation Unit 1) frequently ate mud whelks in recent centuries, possibly as a result of diminishing food supplies (and

1392-585: The official of the German East African Society made the mistake of following the Wali von Pangani in a mosque, which buildings in this country are not allowed to be entered by non-Muslims the unfortunate circumstance occurred that the officers' dogs ran after him to the mosque - this whole incident is officially denied by the German side, but was confirmed to me by an eyewitness - ... an Austrian citizen in confidence as correct. This incident also took place on

1440-552: The only skull with a bullet-hole as the skull of chief Mkwawa. The skull was finally returned on 9 July 1954, and now resides at the Mkwawa Memorial Museum in Kalenga, near the town of Iringa . Emil von Zelewski Emil von Zelewski (13 March 1854 – 17 August 1891) was a German officer of Kashubian descent who served as commander of the Schutztruppe in German East Africa . He led German forces against an uprising by

1488-765: The people of Pangani Bay are still connected to other communities in East Africa on a regional level. The southern Swahili coast (south of Tanga Town) is thought to have developed a different tradition from the northern coast (from Mombasa to the Lamu Archipelago in Kenya) before 1250 C.E. Due to a shift in Islamic influence (from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea) that brought people together and encouraged settlement growth and expansion,

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1536-585: The position that the whereabouts could not be traced. However, after World War II the Governor of Tanganyika , Sir Edward Twining , took up the issue again. After enquiries he was directed to the Bremen Museum which he visited himself in 1953. The Museum had a collection of 2000 skulls, 84 of which originated from the former German East Africa. He short-listed the ones which showed measurements similar to surviving relatives of Chief Mkwawa; from this selection he picked

1584-558: The region. They created TIW and dwelt near the Pangani River or atop escarpments with a view of the waterway. The famring peoples of Pangani Bay were the Bondei and Zigua . Early TIW found close to Kumbamtoni resembled coastal pottery from the southern and central parts of the Swahili coast . Such pottery are accompanied with more than 20 disc beads made of sea shells in Kumbamtoni. Along

1632-464: The river bank, there are also a few Maore Ware sherds that come from the interior of the continent. At sites in Pangani Bay, there is no indication of foreign ceramics from before 1000 C.E., such as Sasanian Islamic variations. However, the discovery of a purported Roman ceramic (or Indic copy) points to communication with the larger Indian Ocean in the first millennium C.E. During the Swahili era (1250–1550 CE), interactions between indigenous tribes of

1680-548: The site of the Mlambalasi Rock Shelter . Mkwawa's body was buried a few meters away from the rockshelter. His brother Chambila, who was given the name (roughly meaning "hero") for his heroism in battle, fought alongside him to his last breath. Mkwawa and his brother descended from an immigrant from the North named Mufwimi, a traditional name meaning "a hunter". After his death, German soldiers removed Mkwawa's head. The skull

1728-470: The southern highlands under their control under their chiefs Munyigumba Muyinga and Mkwawa since the 1860s. The Hehe trains extended into the area of the caravan route. There were also attacks on tribes that had recognized German supremacy. That is why the decision was made in the new capital Dar es Salaam to undertake a punitive expedition against the Hehe. The first significant action by Zelewski as commander

1776-577: The suburb that now bears his name. Abushiri was instrumental in coordinating resistance to German conquest along much of the coast. The Germans hanged him at Pangani in December 1889. In the 1890s, German troops quenched the Bushiri Rebellion, a local uprising, and the residents of Pangani Bay once more fell victim to outside intrusion. They attempted to exert authority over the interior of the continent and "pacify" coastal populations. The popular leader of

1824-403: The survey to be relatively smaller. On the other hand, findings from sites containing mostly Swahili artefacts are scarcely any Post-Swahili remains. The worldwide slave and ivory traffic grew more intense throughout the nineteenth century, and Omani (and European) plantation agriculture gained sway, compounding the pressures of earlier eras. The natives fled to hamlets far from Pangani Town,

1872-630: The time. Other community members (from Muhembo and Tongoni) resided in distant wattle-and-daub homes. Foreign contacts, which may be seen in the archaeological record in the form of Asian ceramics and glass beads, had a significant impact on the formation of identity borders. For example, 62 of 81 (75.3%) of the beads found during excavations at these sites—92 of 108 (85.2%) at Muhembo (Site 37 in Survey Unit 4); and Tongoni—are of foreign (glass) provenance. Among other things, locals created iron tools, textiles, nonglass beads, and ceramics. The situation along

1920-443: The two surviving DOAG strongholds, during the uprising, took up guns, learned new skills as a builder, and created labour and management practises that would influence the rest of his stay in the area. In fact, he brought a large portion of his primarily Nyamwezi staff with him when he returned to Kikogwe, his sisal plantation south of Pangani. He started working on building a successful, modern plantation once more, one that produced

1968-612: Was also his last. In July 1891 he marched with a battalion of the Schutztruppe (three companies with 13 officers, 320 Askaris , 170 porters as well as machine guns and light field guns) from the East African coast towards Heheland. Zelewski switched to scorched earth warfare as he knew it from fighting the coastal insurrection. On 30 July 1891 he noted “a fortified settlement shot at with 20 shells and 850 Maxim cartridges”, on 5 and 6 August 1891, 25 farms burned down, and on 15 and 16 August 1891 another 50 farms. Mkwawa and his brother Mpangie had gathered their warriors and were waiting for

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2016-447: Was born in Luhota and was the son and successor of Sultan Munyigumba, who died in 1879. In July 1891, the German commissioner Emil von Zelewski led a battalion of soldiers (320 askaris with officers and porters) to suppress the Hehe. On 17 August, they were attacked by Mkwawa's 3,000-strong army at Lugalo , who, despite only being equipped with spears and a few guns, quickly overpowered

2064-628: Was first brought to the lower river basin after the 1880s through plantation initiatives at Mauya. Among others, Arabic -speaking Omani landowners created a "brutally rationalised form of plantation production" in earlier decades that abused slaves. Maroons (also known as watoro , or escaped slaves) established hideouts in remote locations. Slavery, servitude, and plantation labour have left behind structural remains that stand as reminders of violence. The diversified population of Pangani Bay includes residents from other places as well as people who self-identify as Zigua, Bondei, Digo, Iloikop , and Bena as

2112-525: Was sent to Berlin and probably ended up in the Übersee-Museum Bremen . In 1918 the then British Administrator of German East Africa Horace Byatt proposed to his government that it should demand a return of the skull to Tanganyika in order to reward the Wahehe for their cooperation with the British during the war and in order to have a symbol assuring the locals of the definitive end of German power. The skull's return

2160-457: Was sent to the city of Pangani , which belonged to the Sultanate of Zanzibar , as a representative of the company. During the meeting, Zelewski's imperious behavior became a trigger for the uprising of the East African coastal population against the GEAC. The company had concluded a coastal and customs treaty with the Sultan in 1887. In return for an annual lease, it took over the administration of

2208-532: Was stipulated in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles : ARTICLE 246. Within six months from the coming into force of the present Treaty, ... Germany will hand over to His Britannic Majesty's Government the skull of the Sultan Mkwawa which was removed from the Protectorate of German East Africa and taken to Germany. The Germans disputed that Mkwawa's skull had been removed from East Africa and the British government took

2256-473: Was the introduction of modern agriculture through European-run plantations. This task was taken seriously by Lautherborn since it served as the cornerstone of his sense of identity and self-worth. His letters to his family, sister, and brother-in-law, as well as to the readers of Vendsyssel Tidende, provide a window into the lives, ideas, and experiences of a pragmatic imperialist who was keen to modernise agricultural productivity and introduce "civilization" to

2304-579: Was to put down the insurrection movement with a hastily recruited force of German officers and African mercenaries. The control of the protected area was then transferred from the GEAC to the German Empire. Emil von Zelewski joined Wissmann's troops in 1889, took part in the storming of Buschiri's camp and the capture of Pangani and Saadani. He was eventually appointed head of the Wissmann Troop in Kilwa. During

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