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133-612: The current Catholic chapel was built in 1872 on the site of a former Byzantine church from around the 5th century, of which only part of the mosaic floor remains. Christian tradition says is the place where the Holy Family found refuge during the Massacre of the Innocents , before they could flee to Egypt . The name is derived from the story that a "drop of milk" of the Virgin Mary fell on

266-737: A Synod held in the Hagia Sophia. Leo was succeeded by Michael II , who in an 824 letter to the Carolingian emperor Louis the Pious lamented the appearance of image veneration in the church and such practices as making icons baptismal godfathers to infants. He confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754. Michael was succeeded by his son, Theophilus . Theophilus died leaving his wife Theodora regent for his minor heir, Michael III . Like Irene 50 years before her, Theodora presided over

399-851: A 'Queen of Peace' tabernacle was installed in their Eucharistic Adoration Chapel. The tabernacle was donated by the Polish community 'Queen of Peace' to the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land . It was originally designed for the Fourth Station of the Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem, but was eventually moved to the Sisters of Perpetual Adoration at the Milk Grotto in 2016, because they were better prepared to ensure

532-517: A Byzantine aristocrat and general who lived c. 1235 to c. 1305–08. It displays the attenuated proportions favored in the late Byzantine era, as well as shifts in style in the mosaics' treatment of figures. As early as the building of Constantine's churches in Palestine there were two chief types of plan in use: the basilican , or axial, type, represented by the basilica at the Holy Sepulchre , and

665-431: A complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate account of events and various aspects of the controversy. The period was marked by intensely polarized debate amongst at least the clergy, and both sides came to regard the position of the other as heresy , and accordingly made efforts to destroy the writings of the other side when they had the chance. Leo III is said to have ordered the destruction of iconodule texts at

798-470: A desire to replicate the military success of Constantine V. The Byzantines had suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the Bulgarian Khan Krum , in the course of which emperor Nikephoros I had been killed in battle and emperor Michael I Rangabe had been forced to abdicate. In June 813, a month before the coronation of Leo V, a group of soldiers broke into the imperial mausoleum in

931-578: A distinct style gradually resulted in the Greek cross plan in church architecture . Civil architecture continued Greco-Roman trends; the Byzantines built impressive fortifications and bridges, but generally not aqueducts on the same scales as the Romans. This terminology was introduced by modern historians to designate the medieval Roman Empire as it evolved as a distinct artistic and cultural entity centered on

1064-462: A factional split in the church, but rather to an ongoing issue of concern, and Germanos refers to Emperor Leo III, often presented as the original Iconoclast, as a friend of images. Germanos' concerns are mainly that the actions of Constantine and Thomas should not confuse the laity. At this stage in the debate, there is no clear evidence for an imperial involvement in the debate, except that Germanos says he believes that Leo III supports images, leaving

1197-567: A figurative mosaic by Emperor Constantine V in the apse of Hagia Irene in Constantinople is itself an almost unique survival, but careful inspection of some other buildings reveals similar changes. In Nicaea , photographs of the Church of the Dormition, taken before it was destroyed in 1922, show that a pre-iconoclasm standing Theotokos was replaced by a large cross, which was itself replaced by

1330-683: A form of contact relic, which additionally were taken to prove divine approval of the use of icons. The two most famous were the Mandylion of Edessa (where it still remained) and the Image of Camuliana from Cappadocia , by then in Constantinople. The latter was already regarded as a palladium that had won battles and saved Constantinople from the Persian - Avar siege of 626 , when the Patriarch paraded it around

1463-630: A great part of current Italy used to belong to the Byzantine Empire before that. Great examples of Byzantine architecture are still visible in Ravenna (for example Basilica di San Vitale which architecture influenced the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne). As for the East, Byzantine architectural tradition exerted a profound influence on early Islamic architecture , particularly Umayyad architecture . During

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1596-480: A growing opposition among many in the church, although the progress and extent of these views is now unclear. Images in the form of mosaics and paintings were widely used in churches, homes and other places such as over city gates, and had since the reign of Justinian I been increasingly taking on a spiritual significance of their own, and regarded at least in the popular mind as capable of possessing capacities in their own right, so that "the image acts or behaves as

1729-766: A large scale. Wall mosaics with gold backgrounds became standard for the grandest buildings, with frescos a cheaper alternative. The richest interiors were finished with thin plates of marble or coloured and patterned stone. Some of the columns were also made of marble. Other widely used materials were bricks and stone. Mosaics made of stone or glass tesserae were also elements of interior architecture. Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors. Early Byzantine architecture drew upon earlier elements of Roman and Greek architecture . Stylistic drift , technological advancement , and political and territorial changes meant that

1862-853: A model for both in that it combined the elements of a longitudinal basilica with those of a centralized building. Other structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople , the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns). A mosaic in the church begun by the Ostrogoths , San Apollinare in Nuovo in Ravenna, depicts an early Byzantine palace. Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki , Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai , Jvari Monastery in present-day Georgia , and three Armenian churches of Echmiadzin all date primarily from

1995-515: A museum. It is open everyday, except for Tuesdays. Construction of Hagia Irene The most famous example of Byzantine architecture is the Hagia Sophia , and it has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world ", and as an architectural and cultural icon of Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox civilization . The Hagia Sophia held the title of largest church in the world until

2128-553: A natural death, remained in power until they died, and were then laid to rest with all honors in the imperial mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles. Leo next appointed a "commission" of monks "to look into the old books" and reach a decision on the veneration of images. They soon discovered the acts of the Iconoclastic Synod of 754. A first debate followed between Leo's supporters and the clerics who continued to advocate

2261-481: A new ecumenical council, ultimately called the Second Council of Nicaea , which first met in Constantinople in 786 but was disrupted by military units faithful to the iconoclast legacy. The council convened again at Nicaea in 787 and reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council held at Constantinople and Hieria, and appropriated its title as Seventh Ecumenical Council . Thus there were two councils called

2394-567: A pair of olive trees which symbolise the two witnesses of the Apocalypse. Their branches are filled with a variety of different crosses , symbolising the various Christian professions emerging from the common trunk of Christianity. At the centre of the open shrine stands the monstrance showing a Madonna holding in her hands the Eucharistic Christ, depicted as a large host . Byzantine church (building) Byzantine architecture

2527-626: A part of the claimed remains of, or had supposedly come into contact with, Christ, the Virgin or a saint, were also widely utilized in Christian practices at this time. Relics, a firmly embedded part of veneration by this period, provided physical presence of the divine but were not infinitely reproducible (an original relic was required), and still usually required believers to undertake pilgrimage or have contact with somebody who had. The use of images had greatly increased during this period, and had generated

2660-740: A question as to why Leo III has been presented as the arch-iconoclast of Byzantine history. Almost all of the evidence for the reign of Leo III is derived from textual sources, the majority of which post-date his reign considerably, most notably the Life by Stephen the Younger and the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor . These important sources are fiercely iconophile and are hostile to the Emperor Constantine V (741–775). As Constantine's father, Leo also became

2793-518: A regular mix of stone and brick , often with more of the latter. The exterior of the 11th- or 12th-century Pammakaristos Church in Istanbul is an example, though it is even more renowned for Late Byzantine additions discussed below. The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos . Unlike their Slavic counterparts,

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2926-497: A representative. The iconoclast Council of Hieria was not the end of the matter, however. In this period complex theological arguments appeared, both for and against the use of icons. Constantine himself wrote opposing the veneration of images, while John of Damascus , a Syrian monk living outside of Byzantine territory, became a major opponent of iconoclasm through his theological writings. It has been suggested that monasteries became secret bastions of icon support, but this view

3059-415: A square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the front. Still in front put a square court. The court

3192-408: A straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of

3325-409: A target. Leo's actual views on icon veneration remain obscure, but in any case, may not have influenced the initial phase of the debate. During this initial period, concern on both sides seems to have had little to do with theology and more with practical evidence and effects. There was initially no church council, and no prominent patriarchs or bishops called for the removal or destruction of icons. In

3458-527: A term that has come to be applied figuratively to any person who breaks or disdains established dogmata or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are derisively called "iconolaters" ( εἰκονολάτρες ). They are normally known as " iconodules " ( εἰκονόδουλοι ), or "iconophiles" ( εἰκονόφιλοι ). These terms were, however, not a part of the Byzantine debate over images. They have been brought into common usage by modern historians (from

3591-489: Is accused of being obsessive in his hostility to images and monks; because of this he burned monasteries and images and turned churches into stables, according to the surviving iconophile sources. In 754 Constantine summoned the Council of Hieria in which some 330 to 340 bishops participated and which was the first church council to concern itself primarily with religious imagery. Constantine seems to have been closely involved with

3724-510: Is controversial. A possible reason for this interpretation is the desire in some historiography on Byzantine Iconoclasm to see it as a preface to the later Protestant Reformation in western Europe, which was opposed to monastic establishments. In opposition to this view, others have suggested that while some monks continued to support image veneration, many others followed church and imperial policy. The surviving sources accuse Constantine V of moving against monasteries, having relics thrown into

3857-580: Is defined by its large atrium, and is in fact the only surviving building of the Byzantine Empire to have such a feature. Hagia Irene is composed mainly of three materials: stone, brick, and mortar . Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick. The building materials chosen for the construction of the church had to be lightweight, durable, and strong. Volcanic materials were chosen for this purpose, as volcanic concrete

3990-429: Is representative of Byzantine architecture. Both of the domes collapsed at different times throughout history due to earthquakes and had to be rebuilt. The original construction of Hagia Sophia was possibly ordered by Constantine, but ultimately carried out by his son Constantius II in 360. Constantine's building of churches, specifically the Hagia Sophia, was considered an incredibly significant component in his shift of

4123-618: Is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire , or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great established a new Roman capital in Byzantium , which became Constantinople , until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. There was initially no hard line between the Byzantine and Roman Empires, and early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from late Roman architecture . The style continued to be based on arches, vaults and domes, often on

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4256-456: Is the atrium and usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on pillars. The entrance porch is the narthex . Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo , from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which divided off the bema , where

4389-424: Is thus difficult to reconstruct a balanced view of the popularity or prevalence of iconoclast writings. The major theological arguments, however, remain in evidence because of the need in iconophile writings to record the positions being refuted. Debate seems to have centred on the validity of the depiction of Jesus , and the validity of images of other figures followed on from this for both sides. The main points of

4522-521: Is unknown, but the change certainly caused Caliph Abd al-Malik to break permanently with his previous adoption of Byzantine coin types to start a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. This appears more like two opposed camps asserting their positions (pro and anti images) than one empire seeking to imitate the other. More striking is the fact that Islamic iconoclasm rejected any depictions of living people or animals, not only religious images. By contrast, Byzantine iconomachy concerned itself only with

4655-481: Is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, etc. ... let him be anathema." This Council claimed to be the legitimate "Seventh Ecumenical Council", but its legitimacy is disregarded by both Orthodox and Catholic traditions as no patriarchs or representatives of the five patriarchs were present: Constantinople was vacant while Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria were controlled by Muslims, and Rome did not send

4788-477: Is very light and durable. Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design. While the plain outside composed of stone and brick favors functionality, the interior is decorated in elaborate mosaics, decorative marble, and, in some places, covered in plaster. Another important characteristic of the church include two domes that follow one behind another,

4921-675: The Nea Ekklesia (both no longer existent) served as a model for most cross-in-square sanctuaries of the period, including the Cattolica di Stilo in southern Italy (9th century), the monastery church of Hosios Lukas in Greece (c. 1000), Nea Moni of Chios (a pet project of Constantine IX ), and the Daphni Monastery near Athens (c. 1050). All three of the later churches display the important shifts in architectural design that occurred following

5054-581: The Aegean Sea between the island of Thera (modern Santorini) and Therasia , probably causing tsunamis and great loss of life. Many, probably including Leo III, interpreted this as a judgment on the Empire by God, and decided that use of images had been the offense. The classic account of the beginning of Byzantine Iconoclasm relates that sometime between 726 and 730 the Byzantine Emperor Leo III

5187-552: The Church of the Holy Apostles , opened the sarcophagus of Constantine V, and implored him to return and save the empire. Soon after his accession, Leo V began to discuss the possibility of reviving iconoclasm with a variety of people, including priests, monks, and members of the senate. He is reported to have remarked to a group of advisors that: all the emperors, who took up images and venerated them, met their death either in revolt or in war; but those who did not venerate images all died

5320-508: The Gothic style . In the same way the Parthenon is the most impressive monument for Classical religion , Hagia Sophia remained the iconic church for Christianity . The temples of these two religions differ substantially from the point of view of their interiors and exteriors. For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of

5453-566: The Ionic . Composite columns line the principal space of the nave. Ionic columns are used behind them in the side spaces, in a mirror position relative to the Corinthian or Composite orders (as was their fate well into the 19th century, when buildings were designed for the first time with a monumental Ionic order). At Hagia Sophia, though, these are not the standard imperial statements. The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations. In some,

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5586-447: The Life of St. Stephen the Younger , which includes a detailed, but highly biased, account of persecutions during the reign of Constantine V . No account of the period in question written by an iconoclast has been preserved, although certain saints' lives do seem to preserve elements of the iconoclast worldview. Major theological sources include the writings of John of Damascus , Theodore

5719-536: The Quinisext council in 692 did not explicitly state that images should be prayed to, it stated that images of Christ had to render him in human form (instead of for example symbolically as a lamb) to testify to his human incarnation. Because Jesus manifested himself as human it was acceptable to make images of him just like it was acceptable to make images of the saints and other humans. The events which have traditionally been labelled 'Byzantine Iconoclasm' may be seen as

5852-562: The Ten Commandments , which forbade the making, veneration and worshipping of " graven images , or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:" ( Exodus 20:4-5, Deuteronomy 5:8-9, see also biblical law in Christianity ). The two periods of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and 9th centuries made use of this theological theme in discussions over

5985-544: The Umayyad Caliphate era (661-750), as far as the Byzantine impact on early Islamic architecture is concerned, the Byzantine arts formed a fundamental source to the new Muslim artistic heritage, especially in Syria. There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715). While these give clear reference in plan - and somewhat in decoration - to Byzantine art,

6118-714: The Virgin Mary , referred to in Greek as the Theotokos ("birth-giver of God") or Meter Theou ("Mother of God"), the saints, living holy men, women, and spiritual elders, followed by the rest of humanity. Thus, in order to obtain blessings or divine favour, early Christians, like Christians today, would often pray or ask an intermediary, such as the saints or the Theotokos, or living fellow Christians believed to be holy, to intercede on their behalf with Christ. A strong sacramentality and belief in

6251-522: The dosseret required to carry the arch , the springing of which was much wider than the abacus of the column. On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally. There are two types of columns used at Hagia Sophia : Composite and Ionic. The Composite column that emerged during the Late Byzantine Empire , mainly in Rome, combines the Corinthian with

6384-479: The iconodules , which Leo III stated was in direct opposition to Mosaic Law as shown in the Second Commandment . However, no detailed writings setting out iconoclast arguments have survived; we have only brief quotations and references in the writings of the iconodules and the nature of Biblical law in Christianity has always been in dispute. Newer studies have discredited the former theory that Iconoclasm

6517-413: The solea , a raised walkway enclosed by a railing or low wall. The continuous influence from the East is widely shown in the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of

6650-429: The "Seventh Ecumenical Council," the first supporting iconoclasm, the second supporting icon veneration. Unlike the iconoclast council, the iconophile council included papal representatives, and its decrees were approved by the papacy. The Orthodox Church considers it to be the last genuine ecumenical council. Icon veneration lasted through the reign of Empress Irene 's successor, Nikephoros I (reigned 802–811), and

6783-548: The 20th century was the Church of Saint Sava in Belgrade . One of the less famous Byzantine churches is Hagia Irene . This church served as a model church for the more famous church, Hagia Sophia. Construction on the church began in the 4th century. This was the first church that was built in Constantinople, but due to its location, it was severely damaged by earthquakes and the Nika riots, and required repair several times. The Hagia Irene

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6916-515: The 4th century as a cylindrical domed structure built on a square base, and the noble Church of Saint George , Thessaloniki (5th century), or by a vaulted aisle, as at Santa Costanza , Rome (4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia , Ravenna (5th century). The most famous church of this type

7049-509: The 7th century and provide a glimpse on architectural developments in the Byzantine provinces following the age of Justinian. Remarkable engineering feats include the 430 m long Sangarius Bridge , the pointed arch of Karamagara Bridge , as well as the dome of the Church of Hagia Sophia . In the Macedonian dynasty , it is presumed that Basil I 's votive church of the Theotokos of the Pharos and

7182-512: The Byzantine Empire, formed a catalyst for the expansion of the use of images of the holy and caused a dramatic shift in responses to them. Whether the acheiropoieta were a symptom or cause, the late sixth to eighth centuries witnessed the increasing thinning of the boundary between images not made by human hands, and images made by human hands. Images of Christ, the Theotokos and saints increasingly came to be regarded, as relics, contact relics and acheiropoieta already were, as points of access to

7315-561: The Byzantine and Carolingian traditions in what was still a unified European Church, as well as facilitating the reduction or removal of Byzantine political control over parts of the Italian Peninsula . Iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious images and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called iconoclasts , Greek for 'breakers of icons' ( εἰκονοκλάσται ),

7448-557: The Byzantine architecture persisted even longer, from the 16th up to the 18th centuries, giving birth to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture. Neo-Byzantine architecture was followed in the wake of the 19th-century Gothic revival , resulting in such jewels as Westminster Cathedral in London , and in Bristol from about 1850 to 1880 a related style known as Bristol Byzantine was popular for industrial buildings which combined elements of

7581-529: The Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and Theodore the Studite , abbot of the Stoudios monastery in Constantinople. John declared that he did not worship matter, "but rather the creator of matter." He also declared, "But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace." He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as

7714-750: The Byzantine style with Moorish architecture. It was developed on a wide-scale basis in Russia during the reign of Alexander II by Grigory Gagarin and his followers who designed St Volodymyr's Cathedral in Kyiv, St Nicholas Naval Cathedral in Kronstadt , Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia , Saint Mark's church in Belgrade and the New Athos Monastery in New Athos near Sukhumi . The largest Neo-Byzantine project of

7847-427: The Byzantines and the Arabs) maintained a continuous tradition of icons. Instead, iconodules escaped Iconoclasm by fleeing to peripheral regions away from the iconoclastic imperial authority in both west (Italy and Dalmatia) and east, such as Cyprus, the southern coast of Anatolia, and eastern Pontus. It is also possible that the concentration of Iconoclasm in the eastern Anatolian areas of Isauria, Chaldia and Cappadocia

7980-457: The Emperor Justinian I 's reign and survive in Ravenna and Istanbul, as well as in Sofia (the Church of St Sophia ). One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred when Justinian's architects invented a complex system providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means of pendentives . In Ravenna, the longitudinal basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo , and

8113-530: The Empire. Constantine's son, Leo IV (775–80), was less rigorous, and for a time tried to mediate between the factions. When he died, his wife Irene took power as regent for her son, Constantine VI (780–97). Though icon veneration does not seem to have been a major priority for the regency government, Irene called an ecumenical council a year after Leo's death, which restored image veneration. This may have been an effort to secure closer and more cordial relations between Constantinople and Rome. Irene initiated

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8246-404: The Isaurian ordered the removal of an image of Christ, prominently placed over the Chalke Gate , the ceremonial entrance to the Great Palace of Constantinople , and its replacement with a cross. Fearing that they intended sacrilege, some of those who were assigned to the task were murdered by a band of iconodules . Accounts of this event (written significantly later) suggest that at least part of

8379-455: The Ottoman Empire sieged the Byzantine capital. After the fall of Constantinople, the church was used by the Muslims for their religious services until 1931, when it was reopened as a museum in 1935. Translated from Greek , the name Hagia Sophia means "Holy Wisdom". The construction is a combination of longitudinal and central structures. This church was a part of a larger complex of buildings created by Emperor Justinian . This style influenced

8512-434: The Paleologan architects never accented the vertical thrust of structures. As a result, the late medieval architecture of Byzantium (barring the Hagia Sophia of Trebizond ) is less prominent in height. The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics. Other churches from

8645-413: The Studite , and the Patriarch Nikephoros, all of them iconodules. The theological arguments of the iconoclasts survive only in the form of selective quotations embedded in iconodule documents, most notably the Acts of the Second Council of Nicaea and the Antirrhetics of Nikephoros. An immediate precursor of the controversy seems to have been a large submarine volcanic eruption in the summer of 726 in

8778-413: The Word after the Incarnation with material colours, he is an adversary of God. .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, he is an adversary of God" "Satan misled men, so that they worshipped

8911-465: The altar was situated, from the body of the church; this screen, bearing images, is the iconostasis . The altar was protected by a canopy or ciborium resting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch 's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon. The two smaller compartments and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the diaconicon and prothesis . The ambo and bema were connected by

9044-403: The centralization of power from Rome in the west to Constantinople in the east, and was considered the high-point of religious and political celebration. The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian. Between the rule of these two Emperors, Hagia Sophia was destroyed and rebuilt twice. Following its reconstruction, Hagia Sophia

9177-461: The churches and basilicas have high-riding domes, which created vast open spaces at the centers of churches, thereby heightening the light. The round arch is a fundamental of Byzantine style. Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches. Byzantine capitals break away from the Classical conventions of ancient Greece and Rome with sinuous lines and naturalistic forms, which are precursors to

9310-412: The circular, or central, type, represented by the great octagonal church once at Antioch . Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always vaulted , for a central dome would seem to furnish their very purpose. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at Church of St. George, Sofia , built by the Romans in

9443-409: The construction of several other buildings, such as St. Peter's Basilica . Hagia Sophia should have been built to withstand earthquakes, but since the construction of Hagia Sophia was rushed this technology was not implemented in the design, which is why the building has had to be repaired so many times due to damages from the earthquakes. The dome is the key feature of Hagia Sophia as the domed basilica

9576-469: The continuous prayer for peace. The Polish artist who designed the tabernacle, Mariusz Drapikowski , explains his work as inspired by the Apocalypse of St John : the closed tabernacle depicts earthly Jerusalem, with the twelve Apostles and the twelve Tribes of Israel surrounding the image of Jesus on the cross, while the open shrine is representing the heavenly Jerusalem , brightly shining and flanked by

9709-514: The council, and it endorsed an iconoclast position, with 338 assembled bishops declaring, "the unlawful art of painting living creatures blasphemed the fundamental doctrine of our salvation--namely, the Incarnation of Christ, and contradicted the six holy synods. ... If anyone shall endeavor to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colors which are of no value (for this notion

9842-608: The creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity." The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur ( John of Damascus ), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from

9975-417: The decoration of important public structures, classical orders were used more freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested upon massive piers , and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors. Most of the surviving structures are sacred, with secular buildings having been destroyed. Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from

10108-402: The deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept. The ceremonies were held outside, in front of the temple. Instead, Christian liturgies were held inside the churches. Byzantine columns are quite varied, mostly developing from the classical Corinthian , with the ornamentation undercut with drills, and fluted shafts almost entirely abandoned. The block of stone was left rough as it came from

10241-512: The divine nature alone, but in the same way, as this is accorded to the life-giving cross, the holy gospels, and other sacred offerings' (trans. Price, The Acts of the Second Council of Nicaea [Liverpool 2018], 564-5, abbreviated). Emperor Leo V the Armenian instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in 815, again possibly motivated by military failures seen as indicators of divine displeasure, and

10374-411: The divine. By praying before an image of a holy figure, the believer's prayers were magnified by proximity to the holy. This change in practice seems to have been a major and organic development in Christian worship, which responded to the needs of believers to have access to divine support during the insecurities of the seventh century. It was not a change orchestrated or controlled by the Church. Although

10507-453: The dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave and transepts . Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion. If we draw

10640-438: The dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two stories which bring the exterior form to a general square. At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest. After the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by

10773-455: The efforts of the organised Church and the imperial authorities to respond to these changes and to try to reassert some institutional control over popular practice. The rise of Islam in the seventh century had also caused some consideration of the use of holy images. Early Islamic belief stressed the impropriety of iconic representation. Earlier scholarship tried to link Byzantine Iconoclasm directly to Islam by arguing that Byzantine emperors saw

10906-567: The end of Iconoclasm, when architectural design and decoration became more standardized. The Hagia Sophia church in Ochrid (present-day North Macedonia ), built in the First Bulgarian Empire in the time of Boris I of Bulgaria , and eponymous cathedral in Kyiv (present-day Ukraine ) testify to a vogue for multiple subsidiary domes set on drums, which would gain in height and narrowness with

11039-590: The end of the controversy the pope had approved the creation of a new emperor in the West, and the old deference of the Western church to Constantinople had gone. Opposition to icons seems to have had little support in the West and Rome took a consistently iconodule position. When the struggles flared up, Pope Gregory II had been pope since 715, not long after accompanying his Syrian predecessor Pope Constantine to Constantinople, where they successfully resolved with Justinian II

11172-448: The exterior brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, key-patterns etc.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of regional variety. The window and door frames were of marble . The interior surfaces were adorned all over by mosaics or frescoes in

11305-454: The first being a lower oval, and the second being a higher semi-circle. Throughout history Hagia Irene has undergone several changes. There were multiple repairs due to the Nika riots and earthquakes. When the Ottomans took over Hagia Irene they repurposed it and made a few changes, but none as drastic as what was done to Hagia Sophia. Today, Hagia Irene is still standing and open to visitors as

11438-602: The floor of the cave and changed its colour to white. The space, which contains three different caves, is visited by some in hope of healing infertile couples, the shrine allegedly being a place where prayers for children are miraculously answered. A monastery of the Sisters of Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is attached to the chapel. The red-and-white clad nuns practice perpetual Eucharistic adoration , and are also uninterruptedly praying for peace since 2016, when

11571-465: The governance of the Patriarch of Constantinople . Leo died in 741, and his son and heir, Constantine V (741–775), was personally committed to an anti-image position. Despite his successes as an emperor, both militarily and culturally, this has caused Constantine to be remembered unfavorably by a body of source material that is preoccupied with his opposition to image veneration. For example, Constantine

11704-461: The higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, although in one surface, the coloring formed a series of large panels. The better marbles were opened out so that the two surfaces produced by the division formed a symmetrical pattern. Ultimately, Byzantine architecture in the West gave way to Carolingian , Romanesque , and Gothic architecture . But

11837-630: The iconoclast argument were: "Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (χαρακτήρ, kharaktír - character) of

11970-459: The iconoclasts was to restore the church to the strict opposition to images in worship that they believed characterized at the least some parts of the early church. Theologically, one aspect of the debate, as with most in Christian theology at the time, revolved around the two natures of Jesus . Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at

12103-457: The image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross. "He saw no need to consult the Church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered". Germanos I of Constantinople , the iconophile Patriarch of Constantinople , either resigned or was deposed following the ban. Surviving letters Germanos wrote at the time say little of theology. According to Patricia Karlin-Hayter, what worried Germanos

12236-468: The importance of physical presence also joined the belief in intercession of saints with the use of relics and holy images (or icons) in early Christian practices. Believers would, therefore, make pilgrimages to places sanctified by the physical presence of Christ or prominent saints and martyrs, such as the site of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . Relics , or holy objects (rather than places), which were

12369-552: The issues arising from the decisions of the Quinisext Council of 692, which no Western prelates had attended. Of the delegation of 13 Gregory was one of only two non-Eastern; it was to be the last visit of a pope to the city until 1969. There had already been conflicts with Leo III over his very heavy taxation of areas under Papal jurisdiction. The Iconoclast Controversy caused Papal-Imperial relations to plummet. Pope Gregory III declared an excommunication for all iconoclasts, and

12502-613: The later ones Thomas), Germanos reiterates a pro-image position while lamenting the behavior of his subordinates in the church, who apparently had both expressed reservations about image worship. Germanos complains "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter". In both cases, efforts to persuade these men of the propriety of image veneration had failed and some steps had been taken to remove images from their churches. Significantly, in these letters, Germanos does not threaten his subordinates if they fail to change their behavior. He does not seem to refer to

12635-448: The new Theotokos seen in the photographs. The Image of Camuliana in Constantinople appears to have been destroyed, as mentions of it cease. The period of Iconoclasm decisively ended the so-called Byzantine Papacy under which, since the reign of Justinian I two centuries before, the popes in Rome had been initially nominated by, and later merely confirmed by, the emperor in Constantinople, and many of them had been Greek-speaking. By

12768-675: The new capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul ) rather than the city of Rome and its environs. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East. When the Roman Empire became Christian (after having extended eastwards) with its new capital at Constantinople , its architecture became more sensuous and ambitious. This new style with exotic domes and richer mosaics would come to be known as "Byzantine" before it traveled west to Ravenna and Venice and as far north as Moscow . Most of

12901-412: The notion that Christ and the Virgin supported the icons and that they had been used continuously in Christianity since its start. G. E. von Grunebaum has said "The iconoclasm of the eighth and ninth centuries must be viewed as the climax of a movement that had its roots in the spirituality of the Christian concept of the divinity." The events of the seventh century, which was a period of major crisis for

13034-402: The octagon. Finally, at Hagia Sophia (6th century) a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft (30 m) square is increased to 200 ft (60 m) in length by adding two hemicycles to it to the east and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two others, one on either side of

13167-422: The octagonal, centralized structure of the church of San Vitale , commissioned by Emperor Justinian but never seen by him, was built. Justinian's monuments in Istanbul include the domed churches of Hagia Sophia and Hagia Irene (both discussed in more detail below), but there is also an earlier, smaller church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (locally referred to as " Little Hagia Sophia "), which might have served as

13300-798: The outskirts of the Byzantine world, as most significant and ancient churches and buildings were in Asia Minor. During World War I , almost all churches that ended up within the Turkish borders were destroyed or converted into mosques. Some were abandoned as a result of the Greek and Christian genocides from 1915 to 1923. Similar styles can be found in countries such as Bulgaria , Croatia , North Macedonia , Russia , Serbia and other Slavic lands, as well as in Sicily ( Cappella Palatina ) and Veneto ( St Mark's Basilica , Torcello Cathedral ). In Middle Byzantine architecture "cloisonné masonry" refers to walls built with

13433-448: The paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus. This distinction between worship and veneration is key in the arguments of the iconophiles. The iconophile response to iconoclasm included: Emperors had always intervened in ecclesiastical matters since the time of Constantine I. As Cyril Mango writes, "The legacy of Nicaea, the first universal council of the Church,

13566-473: The period of Byzantine Iconoclasm has challenged many of the basic assumptions and factual assertions of the traditional account. Byzantine iconoclasm influenced the later Protestant reformation . Christian worship by the sixth century had developed a clear belief in the intercession of saints. This belief was also influenced by a concept of hierarchy of sanctity, with the Trinity at its pinnacle, followed by

13699-809: The period, both in large religious mosaics, which are now almost exclusively found in Italy and Saint Catherine's Monastery in Egypt as well as portable icons. Important works in Thessaloniki were lost in the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917 and the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) . A large mosaic of a church council in the Imperial Palace was replaced by lively secular scenes, and there was no issue with imagery per se. The plain Iconoclastic cross that replaced

13832-637: The plan of the Umayyad Mosque has also a remarkable similarity with 6th- and 7th-century Christian basilicas, but it has been modified and expanded on the transversal axis and not on the normal longitudinal axis as in the Christian basilicas. The tile work, geometric patterns, multiple arches, domes, and polychrome brick and stone work that characterize Muslim and Moorish architecture were influenced heavily by Byzantine architecture. In Bulgaria , North Macedonia , Serbia , Romania , Belarus , Georgia , Armenia , Ukraine , Russia and other Orthodox countries

13965-548: The process of destroying or obscuring images, Leo is said to have " confiscated valuable church plate, altar cloths, and reliquaries decorated with religious figures ", but he took no severe action against the former patriarch or iconophile bishops. In the West, Pope Gregory III held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions, and in response, Leo confiscated papal estates in Calabria and Sicily , detaching them as well as Illyricum from Papal governance and placing them under

14098-677: The progress of time. In Istanbul and Asia Minor the architecture of the Komnenian period is almost non-existent, with the notable exceptions of the Elmali Kilise and other rock sanctuaries of Cappadocia , and of the Churches of the Pantokrator and of the Theotokos Kyriotissa in Istanbul. Most examples of this architectural style and many of the other older Byzantine styles only survive on

14231-555: The propriety of images of holy figures, including Christ, the Virgin Mary (or Theotokos ) and saints. It was a debate triggered by changes in Orthodox worship, which were themselves generated by the major social and political upheavals of the seventh century for the Byzantine Empire. Traditional explanations for Byzantine iconoclasm have sometimes focused on the importance of Islamic prohibitions against images influencing Byzantine thought. According to Arnold J. Toynbee , for example, it

14364-723: The quarry, and the sculptor evolved new designs to his own fancy, so that one rarely meets with many repetitions of the same design. One of the most remarkable designs features leaves carved as if blown by the wind; the finest example being at the 7th-century Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki) . Those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice  (1071) specially attracted John Ruskin 's fancy. Others appear in Sant'Apollinare in Classe , Ravenna  (549). The column in San Vitale, Ravenna  (547) shows above it

14497-594: The question of the holy presence (or lack thereof) of images. Thus, although the rise of Islam may have created an environment in which images were at the forefront of intellectual question and debate, Islamic iconoclasm does not seem to have had a direct causal role in the development of the Byzantine image debate; in fact Muslim territories became havens for iconophile refugees. However, it has been argued that Leo III, because of his Syrian background, could have been influenced by Islamic beliefs and practices, which could have inspired his first removal of images. The goal of

14630-587: The real authors and dates of many surviving texts remains ongoing. Most iconoclastic texts are simply missing, including a proper record of the council of 754, and the detail of iconoclastic arguments have mostly to be reconstructed with difficulty from their vehement rebuttals by iconodules. Major historical sources for the period include the chronicles of Theophanes the Confessor and the Patriarch Nikephoros , both of whom were ardent iconodules. Many historians have also drawn on hagiography , most notably

14763-544: The reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the Muslims and the eruption of the volcanic island of Thera , which Leo possibly viewed as evidence of the Wrath of God brought on by image veneration in the Church. Leo is said to have described mere image veneration as "a craft of idolatry." He apparently forbade the veneration of religious images in a 730 edict, which did not apply to other forms of art, including

14896-547: The restoration of icon veneration in 843 at the Council of Constantinople , on the condition that Theophilus not be condemned. Since that time the first Sunday of Great Lent has been celebrated in the Orthodox Church and in Byzantine Rite Catholicism as the feast of the " Triumph of Orthodoxy ". What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in quotations or summaries in iconodule writings. It

15029-407: The same time, but only separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be Nestorianism , and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing the two natures into one mixed nature, which was Monophysitism , all icons were thus heretical . Leo III did preach a series of sermons in which he drew attention to the excessive behaviour of

15162-510: The sea, and stopping the invocation of saints. Monks were forced to parade in the Hippodrome, each hand-in-hand with a woman, in violation of their vows. In 765 St Stephen the Younger was killed, and was later considered a martyr to the Iconophile cause. A number of large monasteries in Constantinople were secularised, and many monks fled to areas beyond effective imperial control on the fringes of

15295-525: The seventeenth century) and their application to Byzantium increased considerably in the late twentieth century. The Byzantine term for the debate over religious imagery, iconomachy , means "struggle over images" or "image struggle". Some sources also say that the Iconoclasts were against intercession to the saints and denied the usage of relics; however, it is disputed. Iconoclasm has generally been motivated theologically by an Old Covenant interpretation of

15428-456: The small, lush leaves appear to be caught up in the spinning of the scrolls – clearly, a different, nonclassical sensibility has taken over the design. The columns at Basilica of San Vitale show wavy and delicate floral patterns similar to decorations found on belt buckles and dagger blades. Their inverted pyramidal form has the look of a basket. Buildings increased in geometric complexity , brick and plaster were used in addition to stone in

15561-426: The start of the controversy, and the records of the final Second Council of Nicaea record that books with missing pages were reported and produced to the council. Many texts, including works of hagiography and historical writing as well as sermons and theological writings, were undoubtedly "improved", fabricated or backdated by partisans, and the difficult and highly technical scholarly process of attempting to assess

15694-413: The subject itself is expected to act or behave. It makes known its wishes ... It enacts evangelical teachings, ... When attacked it bleeds, ... [and] In some cases it defends itself against infidels with physical force ...". Key artefacts to blur this boundary emerged in c. 570 in the form of acheiropoieta , images claimed to have been created miraculously or "not by human hands". These sacred images were

15827-430: The success of the early Caliphate and decided that Byzantine use of images (as opposed to Islamic aniconism) had angered God. This does not seem entirely plausible however. The use of images had probably been increasing in the years leading up to the outbreak of iconoclasm. One notable change came in 695, when Justinian II put a full-faced image of Christ on the obverse of his gold coins. The effect on iconoclast opinion

15960-456: The two brief reigns after his. On October 13, 787 the Second Council of Nicaea decreed that 'venerable and holy images are to be dedicated in the holy churches of God, namely the image of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our immaculate Lady the Holy Theotokos, and of the angels and all the saints. They are to be accorded the veneration of honor, not indeed the true worship paid to

16093-451: The veneration of icons, the latter group being led by the Patriarch Nikephoros , which led to no resolution. However, Leo had apparently become convinced by this point of the correctness of the iconoclast position, and had the icon of the Chalke gate, which Leo III is fictitiously claimed to have removed once before, replaced with a cross. In 815 the revival of iconoclasm was rendered official by

16226-575: The walls of the city. Both were images of Christ, and at least in some versions of their stories supposedly made when Christ pressed a cloth to his face (compare with the later, western Veil of Veronica and Turin shroud ). In other versions of the Mandylion's story it joined a number of other images that were believed to have been painted from the life in the New Testament period by Saint Luke or other human painters, and these stories were used to support

16359-621: The years immediately predating the fall of Constantinople survive on Mount Athos and in Mistra (e.g. Brontochion Monastery ). That site also has preserved secular architecture such as the Palace of the Despots and several houses. In the late Byzantine period, c. 1310, a highly ornate parekklesion was added to the Pammakaristos Church in Constantinople for the tomb of Michael Glabas Tarchaniotes,

16492-463: Was considered the center of Orthodox Christianity for 900 years, until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans . Byzantine Iconoclasm The Byzantine Iconoclasm ( Ancient Greek : Εἰκονομαχία , romanized :  Eikonomachía , lit.   'image struggle', 'war on icons') were two periods in the history of the Byzantine Empire when the use of religious images or icons

16625-507: Was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to constantly deal with Arab raids. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed Iconoclasm. The claim of such a geopraphical distribution has, however, been disputed. Re-evaluation of the written and material evidence relating to

16758-648: Was opposed by religious and imperial authorities within the Ecumenical Patriarchate (at the time still comprising the Roman-Latin and the Eastern-Orthodox traditions) and the temporal imperial hierarchy. The First Iconoclasm , as it is sometimes called, occurred between about 726 and 787, while the Second Iconoclasm occurred between 814 and 842. According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm

16891-471: Was primarily concentrated in the eastern regions of the Empire; the prevalence of Iconoclasm had nothing to do with distance from the eastern (Arab) border, suggesting that the spread of iconoclasm was independent of direct Islamic influence. For instance, western regions such as the Cyclades contain evidence of iconoclastic loyalties from church decoration, while eastern areas such as Cyprus (then jointly-ruled by

17024-471: Was started by a ban on religious images promulgated by the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian , and continued under his successors. It was accompanied by widespread destruction of religious images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. The Papacy remained firmly in support of the use of religious images throughout the period, and the whole episode widened the growing divergence between

17157-459: Was that of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople . Vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at Hagia Irene , Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two domes. At Saint Sergius , Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to

17290-563: Was that the ban of icons would prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and therefore play into the hands of Jews and Muslims. This interpretation is now in doubt, and the debate and struggle may have initially begun in the provinces rather than in the imperial court. Letters survive written by the Patriarch Germanos in the 720s and 730s concerning Constantine, the bishop of Nakoleia, and Thomas of Klaudioupolis. In both sets of letters (the earlier ones concerning Constantine,

17423-499: Was the prestige of Islamic military successes in the 7th and 8th centuries that motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the Islamic position of rejecting and destroying devotional and liturgical images. The role of women and monks in supporting the veneration of images has also been asserted. Social and class-based arguments have been put forward, such as that iconoclasm created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; that it

17556-558: Was the result of the military victories of the Isaurian emperors in this border area against the Arabs, as well as the strong imperial authority established in this area. A thorough understanding of the Iconoclast period in Byzantium is complicated by the fact that most of the surviving sources were written by the ultimate victors in the controversy, the iconodules . It is thus difficult to obtain

17689-443: Was to bind the emperor to something that was not his concern, namely the definition and imposition of orthodoxy, if need be by force." That practice continued from beginning to end of the Iconoclast controversy and beyond, with some emperors enforcing iconoclasm, and two empresses regent enforcing the re-establishment of icon veneration. The iconoclastic period has drastically reduced the number of survivals of Byzantine art from before

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