156-537: The politics of Mexico function within the framework of a federal presidential representative democratic republic whose government is based on a multi-party congressional system , where the President of Mexico is both head of state and head of government . The federal government represents the United Mexican States . It is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial, established by
312-566: A central government established usually through coercion (on the model of the Roman Empire ). An empire often includes self-governing regions, but these will possess autonomy only at the sufferance of the central government. On the other hand, a political entity that is an empire in name, may comprise several partly autonomous kingdoms organised together in a federation, with the empire being ruled over by an emperor or senior king ( great king , high king , king of kings ...). One example of this
468-405: A federal government ( federalism ). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision, neither by the component states nor the federal political body without constitutional amendment. Sovereign power is formally divided between
624-497: A stronger central government than the US in the wake of the Civil War of the latter, use the term "Confederation" to refer to the formation or joining, not the structure, of Canada. Legal reforms, court rulings, and political compromises have decentralized Canada in practice since its formation in 1867. An empire is a multi-ethnic state, multinational state , or a group of nations with
780-730: A Constitutional change. Legislative elections are scheduled every six years for the Senate, to be fully renewed in elections held concurrently with the presidential elections, and every three years for the Chamber of Deputies. Elections have traditionally been held on the first Sunday of July, but the new law means they will be held on the first Sunday in June instead. State governors are elected every six years. The state legislatures are renewed every three years. State elections need not be concurrent with federal elections. Federal elections are organized and supervised by
936-450: A broad definition of a basic federalism , there are two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory and govern through common institutions with overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by a constitution. The federal government is the government at the level of the sovereign state. Usual responsibilities of this level of government are maintaining national security and exercising international diplomacy, including
1092-433: A central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs. Overriding powers of a central authority theoretically can include: the constitutional authority to suspend a constituent state's government by invoking gross mismanagement or civil unrest, or to adopt national legislation that overrides or infringes on the constituent states' powers by invoking
1248-587: A dispute between Andrés Manuel López Obrador and other PRD leaders after losing in the 2012 presidential election . Morena won official recognition in 2014 and dominated the 2018 and 2024 elections . According to a 2017 survey by the National Autonomous University of Mexico , 74 percent of Mexicans believe that Mexico's electoral system is not transparent and distrust official results. However, Freedom House shows that popular belief in free and fair elections has increased ever since. Suffrage
1404-426: A federation is Malaysia , in which Sarawak and Sabah agreed to form the federation on different terms and conditions from the states of Peninsular Malaysia . A federation often emerges from an initial agreement between several separate states. The purpose can be the will to solve mutual problems and to provide for mutual defense or to create a nation-state for an ethnicity spread over several states. The former
1560-475: A federation to be brought into being by agreement between a number of formally independent states, in a unitary state self-governing regions are often created through a process of devolution, where a formerly centralized state agrees to grant autonomy to a region that was previously entirely subordinate. Thus, federations are often established voluntarily from "below" whereas devolution grants self-government from "above". A confederation , in modern political terms,
1716-666: A full democratic representation. Even though in the 1960s, a couple of (over a total of more than two thousand) municipalities were governed by opposition parties, the first state government to be won by an opposition party was Baja California in 1989. Historically, there were important high-profile defections from the Institutional Revolutionary Party , like the ones of Juan Andreu Almazán (1940), Ezequiel Padilla (1946), Miguel Henríquez Guzmán (1952), and Cuahtémoc Cárdenas (1988), son of President Lázaro Cárdenas. These departures happened mainly because they opposed
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#17328522056301872-667: A great number of former priístas with them. Under his "Moral Renovation" campaign, his administration attempted to fight corruption at all Government levels, fulfilling Mexico's foreign debt compromises, and creating the Secretaría de la Contraloría General de la Federación (Secretariat of the General Inspectorate of the Federation) to guarantee fiscal discipline and to keep an eye on possible corrupt officials. Nevertheless, his administration still had some corruption scandals of its own,
2028-622: A hospital center". However, due to the highly negative reaction of the Catholic church and the conservative sectors, the initiative was finally withdrawn. On 1 May 1984, an anti-government activist named José Antonio Palacios Marquina, along with others, threw Molotov cocktails at the balcony of the Presidential Palace, where De la Madrid was reviewing the May Day parade. Although the President
2184-582: A large area of territory (such as Russia , the United States , Canada , India , Brazil , Pakistan or Australia ), but neither is necessarily the case (such as Saint Kitts and Nevis or the Federated States of Micronesia ). About 40% of world population live in a federation. Several ancient chiefdoms and kingdoms, such as the 4th-century-BCE League of Corinth , Noricum in Central Europe , and
2340-518: A long-term framework for political stability, especially the transition of presidential regimes. The period from 1920–1934 in Mexico was marked by a strong presence of military in government and a failure to implement revolutionary reforms. Under President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40), the party transformed into the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana , which was organized on a corporate basis, with peasants, labor,
2496-455: A loss of 27 seats. Felipe Calderón , a conservative former energy minister, won a narrow victory and was elected as the new President. Andrés Manuel López Obrador lost the tight race and did not accept the result. In the 2012 election , Enrique Peña Nieto was elected President of Mexico, marking the return of the PRI after 12 years out of power. On December 1, 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador
2652-524: A new Mexican government being established within the legal framework of the Constitution of 1917 . The following regime can be considered a semi-authoritarian political model (or hybrid regime ). In 1920, a successful general in the Revolution named Alvaro Obregón overthrew the temporary government of the revolutionary leader Venustiano Carranza , which resulted in his election as the President of Mexico. He
2808-415: A plume of LPG to concentrate at ground level for 10 minutes. The plume eventually grew large enough to drift on the wind towards the west end of the site, where the facility's waste-gas flare pit was located. The explosions devastated the town of San Juan Ixhuatepec, and resulted in 500-600 deaths and 7,000 people with severe injuries. The tragedy sparked a national outrage, and President De la Madrid visited
2964-686: A process that continued under his successors, and which immediately caught the attention of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other international observers. In January 1986, Mexico entered the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) following its efforts at reforming and decentralizing its economy. The number of state-owned industries went down from approximately 1,155 in 1982 to 412 in 1988. De la Madrid re-privatized companies that had been made state-run under his predecessors. He sought better public-private sector relations, but
3120-484: A result of the international drop in oil prices and a crippling external debt on which Mexico had defaulted months before he took office, De la Madrid introduced sweeping neoliberal policies to overcome the crisis, beginning an era of market-oriented presidents in Mexico, along with austerity measures involving deep cuts in public spending. In spite of these reforms, De la Madrid's administration continued to be plagued by negative economic growth and inflation for
3276-548: A severely fragmented society and fragile institutions. In 1929, all factions and generals of the Mexican Revolution were united into a single party, the National Revolutionary Party (NRP), to stabilize the country and end internal conflicts. During the following administrations, since 1928, many of the revolutionary ideals were put into effect, among them the free distribution of land to peasants and farmers ,
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#17328522056303432-508: A single six-year term, and no one who has held the office even on a caretaker basis is allowed to hold the office again. Deputies and senators were not allowed to succeed themselves immediately until 2018; both may now serve a maximum of 12 consecutive years. A federal presidential election was held on July 2, 2006, concurrent with renovating both chambers of the Congress of the Union. In this election,
3588-485: A suicide mission had sabotaged the plane in retaliation against the United States. However, sabotage was later dismissed as a cause of the crash, and the investigations carried out by the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board and Mexican aeronautical authorities concluded that the cause of the accident was that the center landing gear tire was filled with compressed air, instead of nitrogen . Galloping inflation,
3744-485: A three-party coalition led by the leftist National Regeneration Movement (Morena) party he founded in 2014. In 2024, Mexico elected Claudia Sheinbaum as President. The elections in each state are done at different times, depending on the state, and are not necessarily held at the same time as the federal elections. As of 2024: The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) was followed by the Great Depression , which led to
3900-456: Is absent (either through resignation, impeachment, or death) does the Congress of the Union itself act as an electoral college to elect an interim president by absolute majority. Presidential elections are scheduled every six years, except in the exceptional case of the absolute absence of the President. However, former President Andrés Manuel López Obrador 's term only lasted five years and ten months (December 1, 2018 — September 30, 2024) due to
4056-514: Is an important challenge. The inability to meet this challenge may lead to the secession of parts of a federation or to civil war, as occurred in the United States (southern states sought to protect the institution of slavery while northern states opposed it, with a catalysis occurring in the then– Kansas Territory ), in Nigeria and in Switzerland . In the case of Malaysia , Singapore was expelled from
4212-608: Is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815. The North German Confederation , the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations. Founded in 1922, the Soviet Union was formally a federation of Soviet republics , autonomous republics and other federal subjects, though in practice highly centralized under
4368-582: Is divided into three traditional chiefdoms: Uvea , Sigave , and Alo . The chiefdoms are allowed to have their own legal system which have to be implemented along with French legal system . Under the terms of the Fomboni Accords, signed in December 2001 by the leaders of all three islands, the official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros ; the new state was to be highly decentralised and
4524-425: Is more than a mere loose alliance of independent states. The component states of a federation usually possess no powers in relation to foreign policy and so enjoy no independent status under international law . However, German Länder have that power, which is beginning to be exercised on a European level. Some federations are called asymmetric because some states have more autonomy than others. An example of such
4680-407: Is sometimes one with only a single, centralized, national tier of government. However, unitary states often also include one or more self-governing regions. The difference between a federation and this kind of unitary state is that in a unitary state the autonomous status of self-governing regions exists by the sufferance of the central government, and may be unilaterally revoked. While it is common for
4836-530: Is suggested as one possible de facto federation as it grants more self-government to its autonomous communities than are retained by the constituent entities of most federations. For the Spanish parliament to revoke the autonomy of regions such as Galicia , Catalonia or the Basque Country would be a political near-impossibility, though nothing bars it legally. The Spanish parliament has, however, suspended
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4992-449: Is therefore not a de jure federation, although some academic observers conclude that after 50 years of institutional evolution since the Treaties of Rome it is becoming one. The European Union possesses attributes of a federal state. However, its central government is far weaker than that of most federations and the individual members are sovereign states under international law, so it
5148-465: Is universal, free, secret, and direct for all Mexican citizens 18 and older and is compulsory (but not enforced). The identity document in Mexico also serves as the voting card, so all citizens are automatically registered for all elections; that is, no pre-registration is necessary for every election. All elections are direct; that is, no electoral college is constituted for any of the federal, state, or municipal elections. Only when an incumbent president
5304-469: Is usually characterized as an unprecedented form of supra-national union. The EU has responsibility for important areas such as trade, monetary union, agriculture, and fisheries. Nonetheless, EU member states retain the right to act independently in matters of foreign policy and defense, and also enjoy a near-monopoly over other major policy areas such as criminal justice and taxation. Since the Treaty of Lisbon ,
5460-546: Is usually limited to a permanent union of sovereign states for common action in relation to other states. The closest entity in the world to a confederation at this time is the European Union . While the word confederation was officially used when the Canadian federal system was established in 1867, the term refers only to the process and not the resulting state since Canadian provinces are not sovereign and do not claim to be. In
5616-857: Is vested in the Congress of the Union , a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies . Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation , the Council of the Federal Judiciary, and the collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals. The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) followed the overturn of Porfirio Díaz 's dictatorship and ended with
5772-540: The 1997 midterm election , no party held a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, and in 2000, the first opposition party president was sworn in office since 1929. Vicente Fox won the election with 42.5% of the vote, followed by PRI candidate Francisco Labastida with 36.1%, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 16.6%. Numerous electoral reforms implemented after 1989 aided in
5928-702: The Bank of Mexico and lectured in law at UNAM before he got a position at the Secretariat of Finance in 1965. Between 1970 and 1972, he was employed by Petróleos Mexicanos , Mexico's state-owned petroleum company, after which he held several other bureaucratic posts in the government of Luis Echeverría . In 1979, he was chosen to serve in José López Portillo 's cabinet as Secretary of Budget and Planning, replacing Ricardo García Sainz . De la Madrid had no political experience as an elected official prior to becoming
6084-746: The Contadora Group was launched by Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Mexico to promote peace in Latin America and to deal with the armed conflicts in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. On 31 March 1986, the Mexicana Flight 940 crashed in the state of Michoacán , killing everyone on board. Initially, two Middle Eastern terrorist groups claimed responsibility for this crash, along with the bombing of TWA Flight 840 , which occurred just two days later. An anonymous letter signed by those groups claimed that
6240-735: The Crown Dependencies of the Isle of Man and the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey in the Channel Islands and the United Kingdom is very similar to a federate relation: the Islands enjoy independence from the United Kingdom, which, via The Crown, takes care of their foreign relations and defense – although the UK Parliament does have overall power to legislate for the dependencies. However,
6396-493: The Estadio Azteca on 31 May, just before the opening match Italy vs Bulgaria , De la Madrid was jeered by a crowd of 100,000 while trying to give a speech, apparently in protest over his administration's poor reaction to the 1985 earthquake. An official who was present at the event recalled that "[The President's] words were completely drowned out by boos and whistles [...] I was dying with embarrassment, but it seemed to be
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6552-720: The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the National Action Party (PAN), the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), and the National Regeneration Movement (Morena). Founded in 1929 as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario ("National Revolutionary Party"), the PRI dominated Mexican politics for over 70 years, bringing to power 11 different governments. The PAN, founded in 1939, did not win its first governorship until 1989; its candidates won
6708-628: The Iroquois Confederacy in pre-Columbian North America , could be described as federations or confederations . The Old Swiss Confederacy was an early example of formal non-unitary statehood. Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, transformed into federal states upon independence such as the United States , and various countries in Latin America (see Spanish American wars of independence ). Some of
6864-570: The John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University , in the United States . In 1953, he was introduced to Paloma Cordero by her older brother. The couple began dating in 1955 and married four years later at the Santa Rosa de Lima Church in Cuauhtémoc in 1959. Cordera and de la Madrid had five children - Margarita, Miguel, Enrique Octavio , Federico Luis and Gerardo Antonio. He worked for
7020-767: The Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), the Labor Party (PT), and Convergence (CV) formed a coalition called the Coalition for the Good of All . The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and the Ecologist Green Party (PVEM) formed a coalition called the Alliance for Mexico . The Federal Electoral Tribunal declared Felipe Calderón the winner on September 5 and president-elect. He took office on December 1, 2006, and his term ended on November 30, 2012. Any party did not contest
7176-463: The Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Although the opposition campaign was hurt by the desire of the Mexican electorate for stability, following the assassination of Luis Donaldo Colosio (the intended PRI candidate) and the recent outbreak of hostilities in the state of Chiapas , Zedillo's share of the vote was the lowest official percentage for any PRI presidential candidate up to that time. In
7332-543: The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States , published in 1917. The constituent states of the federation must also have a republican government based on a congressional system established by their respective constitutions. Executive power is exercised by the executive branch, headed by the President, who is advised by a cabinet of secretaries independent of the legislature. Legislative power
7488-475: The United States Constitution having become effective on 4 March 1789, the United States is the oldest surviving federation, while the newest federation is Nepal , after its constitution went into effect on 20 September 2015. The component states are in some sense sovereign, insofar as certain powers are reserved to them that may not be exercised by the central government. However, a federation
7644-454: The democratic transition of Mexico (1982–2012). The first efforts to introduce free and fair elections came with President Miguel de la Madrid in 1983. Still, the attempt was unsuccessful, as he was opposed by politicians in his party. The 1988 elections, won by Carlos Salinas de Gortari against Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas), were regarded as "the most fraudulent in Mexico's history. In 1989, politicians of
7800-581: The government of the Soviet Union . The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system. India , Pakistan , Nigeria and Malaysia (then Federation of Malaya ) became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire . In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Iraq since 2005 as well as Somalia since 2012 . With
7956-616: The nationalization of the oil companies , the birth and rapid growth of the Social Security Institute as well as that of labor unions, and the protection of national industries. President Lázaro Cárdenas was fundamental to recovering some of the social control lost during the Revolution and the following economic meltdown in the United States. However, Cárdenas was followed by less-talented leaders who could not continue this path and establish an effective rule of law in Mexican society. Moreover, Cárdenas's presidency happened before
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#17328522056308112-479: The proclaimed Arab federations were confederations de facto . Miguel de la Madrid Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado ( Spanish pronunciation: [miˈɣel de la maˈðɾið uɾˈtaðo] ; 12 January 1935 – 1 April 2012) was a Mexican politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who served as the 59th president of Mexico from 1982 to 1988. Inheriting a severe economic and financial crisis from his predecessor José López Portillo as
8268-560: The "F" word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, for the purposes of the analysis here, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view the EU as a federal system. ( See, for instance, Bednar, Filippov et al., McKay, Kelemen, Defigueido and Weingast ) A more nuanced view has been given by
8424-467: The "federal nature of Spain's government (a trend that almost no one denies)." Each autonomous community is governed by a Statute of Autonomy ( Estatuto de Autonomía ) under the Spanish Constitution of 1978 . Although South Africa bears some elements of a federal system, such as the allocation of certain powers to provinces, some nevertheless argue that it is functionally a unitary state. On
8580-677: The 1970s. Moreover, although nominally called a federal state, the country's structure already has a number of confederational traits . At present, there is a growing movement to transform the existing federal state into a looser confederation with two or three constitutive states and/or two special regions. A confederation is most likely to feature three differences when contrasted with a federation: (1) No real direct powers: many confederal decisions are externalized by member-state legislation; (2) Decisions on day-to-day-matters are not taken by simple majority but by special majorities or even by consensus or unanimity (veto for every member); (3) Changes of
8736-709: The Americas Trust and Cruises, in 1994, Word of Life and Indians A Vision of America and the Modernization of Mexico; Files, Sunstone (Peru), Entre Voces, Reading and Designated Fund 2000; Encounters (Peru) History of Mexico, and five periodicals: Galeras Fund, Periolibros, Images, Spaces for Reading and the Fund page. During his administration, the FCE received several awards, among them: in 1992, FILIJ Book Award (CNCA) to children's books, in 1993 Golden Laurel Award (Department of Culture of
8892-560: The City of Madrid) in 1993, honorable mention Juan García Bacca (Peruvian Cultural Association) Award, and Gold Aztec Calendar (Mexican Association of Radio and Television). In 1994 and 1995 Award Book Bank of Venezuela for children's books. The Spanish Council for Latin American Studies, distinguished him for his contributions to the development of reading in the Spanish language, received in 1997
9048-408: The Congress of the Union: Political parties can form alliances or coalitions to nominate candidates for any particular election. The coalition must identify itself with a specific name and logo. Proportional representation (plurinominal) seats are assigned to it based on the percentage of votes obtained in the elections. Then, it reassigns them to the constituent political parties. Once each party in
9204-580: The FCE reached a significant presence in Latin America with nine subsidiaries: Argentina , Brazil, Colombia , Chile , Spain , United States , Guatemala , Peru and Venezuela . In publishing field, under his direction, 21 new collections were launched: in 1990, Keys (Argentina) in 1991, A la Orilla del Viento, Mexican Codices, University Science and Special Editions of At the Edge of the wind; in 1992, Breviary of Contemporary Science (Argentina) and New Economic Culture, in 1993 Library Prospective, Mexican Library, Library Cervantes Prize (Spain), and History of
9360-434: The Federal Electoral Institute in the 1990s, which included proportional representation and the first minority seats in the Senate. The presidential election of 1994 was judged to be the first relatively free election in modern Mexican history. Ernesto Zedillo of the PRI won with 48.7 percent of the vote, against 25.9 percent for Diego Fernández de Cevallos of the PAN and 16.6 percent for Cárdenas, who this time represented
9516-478: The German Constitutional Court. Here the EU is defined as 'an association of sovereign national states ( Staatenverbund )'. With this view, the European Union resembles more of a confederation . Constitutionally, the power vested in the special administrative regions of the People's Republic is granted from the Central People's Government , through a decision by the National People's Congress . However, there have been certain largely informal grants of power to
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#17328522056309672-435: The IUS Award by the Faculty of Law of the UNAM , and in 1998 the government of France awarded him the Academic Palms in rank of Commander for his contribution to cultural development. In 1999, Mr. De la Madrid received the medal Picasso Gold (UNESCO), for their work on the diffusion of Latin American culture. De la Madrid made headlines in May 2009 after a controversial interview with journalist Carmen Aristegui . During
9828-526: The Immediate Economic Reorganization Program ( Programa Inmediato de Reordenación Económica ) and, a couple of months later, the National Development Plan ( Plan Nacional de Desarrollo ). Some of the measures proposed were a reduction of public spending, fiscal reforms, a restructuring of the bureaucracy, and employment protection. During his presidency, De la Madrid introduced neoliberal economic reforms that encouraged foreign investment, widespread privatization of state-run industries, and reduction of tariffs,
9984-579: The Member States' right to leave the Union is codified, and the Union operates with more qualified majority voting (rather than unanimity) in many areas. By the signature of this Treaty, the participating Parties give proof of their determination to create the first supranational institution and that thus they are laying the true foundation of an organized Europe. This Europe remains open to all nations. We profoundly hope that other nations will join us in our common endeavor. Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism. Those uncomfortable using
10140-545: The Mexican government and he was abducted in February 1985, tortured and killed; his body was found a month later. The U.S. responded by sending a special unit of the DEA to coordinate the investigation in Mexico. In the investigation, Mexican government officials were implicated, including Manuel Ibarra Herrera, past director of Mexican Federal Judicial Police, and Miguel Aldana Ibarra , the former director of Interpol in Mexico. Drug trafficking as an issue has continued in Mexico in succeeding presidential administrations. In 1983,
10296-461: The Mexican police were often corrupted by bribes from drug traffickers. Violence between traffickers and the police increased in this period. A major incident in the drug war and in U.S.-Mexican relations was the kidnap, torture, and murder of DEA agent Enrique "Kiki" Camarena in 1985. In 1984, the Mexican government had staged a raid on a suspected site of drug trafficking in Chihuahua state. Traffickers suspected Camarena of providing information to
10452-461: The New World federations failed; the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states less than 20 years after its founding. Others, such as Argentina , have shifted between federal, confederal , and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy , and Venezuela became a federation after the Federal War . Australia and Canada are also federations. Germany
10608-418: The PAN. Most importantly, the local PRI stated that the electoral defeat was a "tragic disaster" that should never be repeated. The 1986 gubernatorial elections in that same state [es] were marked by accusations of Electoral fraud . Although the PRI candidate, Fernando Baeza , was officially pronounced winner, the PAN candidate Francisco Barrio Terrazas , who officially ended in second place with 35.16% of
10764-405: The PRI came within 11 seats of losing the majority of the Chamber of Deputies . Opposition parties captured 4 of the 64 Senate seats—the first time that the PRI had failed to hold every seat in the Senate. Capitalizing on the popularity of President Salinas, however, the PRI rebounded in the mid-term congressional elections of 1991 , winning 320 seats. Subsequent changes included the creation of
10920-445: The PRI should put an end to the practice of the President choosing his own successor, and proposed that the PRI Presidential candidate should be democratically chosen by all of the PRI members through a convention . They also claimed that President De la Madrid had gone too far with his austerity and free-market reforms, and that his protégée Salinas represented a continuation of such policies. After many public discussions and proposals,
11076-479: The PRI the following year and created the National Democratic Front ( Frente Democrático Nacional ), a loose alliance of left-wing parties. As the U.S. consumption of illegal substances grew in the 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. became interested in strengthening enforcement of drug trafficking in Mexico. In the 1980s U.S. Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush expanded the so-called "war on drugs" to stop drugs at ports of entry from Mexico. More importantly,
11232-522: The PRI who rejected Salinas's pro-market reforms formed the Party of the Democratic Revolution . In the wake of the fraudulent 1988 elections, the administration of elections was taken out of the hands of the Mexican government's Ministry of the Interior ( Gobernación ), and the Instituto Federal Electoral (IFE) was created in 1990 to ensure free and fair elections and build public confidence in
11388-759: The PRI, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas was nominated presidential candidate by the Frente Democrático Nacional, a coalition of leftist parties. Cárdenas attained massive popularity as result of his efforts at democratizing the PRI, his successful tenure as Governor of Michoacán , his opposition to the austerity reforms and his association with his father's nationalist policies. On the other hand, the right-wing opposition party PAN nominated Manuel Clouthier as their presidential candidate. A businessman-turned-politician, Clouthier became popular, specially in Northern Mexico, for his populist rhetoric and his dennouncement of
11544-1013: The Tenth Amendment contained in the Bill of Rights and the Eleventh Amendment. However, later amendments, particularly the Fourteenth Amendment, gave the federal government considerable authority over states. Federal government within this structure are the government ministries and departments and agencies to which the ministers of government are assigned. There are 26 federations in the world, with 6 each in Asia and Europe , 5 in Africa , 4 in North America , 3 in South America and 2 in Oceania . Some of
11700-416: The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) began operating in Mexico without the consent of Mexican authorities. "In 1987, De la Madrid declared drug trafficking a national security problem and completely reorganized Mexican antidrug policy" and more government financial and personnel resources were devoted to the policy. Arrests in 1987 for drug trafficking reached 17,000. Front-line enforcement agents of
11856-451: The U.S. began asserting extraterritorial jurisdiction over drug trafficking in Mexican national territory. The crackdown on drug trafficking resulted in higher prices for drugs, since there was more risk involved, but trafficking in this era boomed. Drug trafficking organizations in Mexico grew in size and strength. As the U.S. asserted jurisdiction over trafficking in Mexico, Mexico could no longer pursue an autonomous drug policy. Agents of
12012-539: The UN focused on states as the rule in the 1940s and 1950s. The NRP was later renamed the Mexican Revolution Party and then the Institutional Revolutionary Party . The social institutions created by the PRI gave it the strength to stay in power. In time, the system gradually became, as some political scientists have labeled it, an "electoral authoritarianism" in that the party resorted to any means necessary, except for
12168-688: The United Kingdom, because, in a devolved state, the central government can revoke the independence of the subunits (the Scottish Parliament , the Welsh Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly in the case of the United Kingdom) without changing the constitution. In some cases, such as the autonomous communities of Spain , devolution has led to federation in all but name, or "federation without federalism". The relation between
12324-464: The affected area on 20 November. He instructed the creation of a commission to help the survivors and to rebuild the destroyed homes. On 22 December, the Procuraduría General de Justicia found the state-run oil company Pemex to be responsible for the incident, and was ordered to pay indemnification to the victims. Due to the tragedy apparently having been caused by corruption and incompetence at
12480-507: The autonomous public Instituto Nacional Electoral . State and municipal elections are organized and supervised by electoral institutes constituted by each state. A local electoral institute also organizes elections within Mexico City. A strongly ingrained concept in Mexican political life is "no reelection." The theory was implemented after Porfirio Díaz monopolized the presidency for over 25 years. Currently, Mexican presidents are limited to
12636-534: The autonomy of Catalonia in response to the Catalan declaration of independence , in the lead-up to the 2017 Catalan election . Additionally, some autonomies such as Navarre or the Basque Country have full control over taxation and spending, transferring a payment to the central government for the common services (military, foreign relations, macroeconomic policy). For example, scholar Enrique Guillén López discusses
12792-415: The autonomy of a self-governing region, it may be politically difficult for it to do so in practice. The self-governing regions of some unitary states also often enjoy greater autonomy than those of some federations. For these reasons, it is sometimes argued that some modern unitary states are de facto federations. De facto federations, or quasi-federations, are often termed " regional states ". Spain
12948-420: The candidate for the PRI. In the assessment of political scientist Jorge G. Castañeda , López Portillo designated De la Madrid as a candidate by elimination, not by choice, and that De la Madrid remained in contention as a candidate because he was never the bearer of bad news to the president. Other contenders were Javier García Paniagua and David Ibarra Muñoz . When his candidacy was revealed, his "candidacy
13104-568: The case of Switzerland , while the country is still known officially as the Swiss Confederation, this is now a misnomer since the Swiss cantons lost their sovereign status in 1848. In Belgium, however, the opposite movement is underway. Belgium was founded as a centralized state, after the French model, but has gradually been reformed into a federal state by consecutive constitutional reforms since
13260-453: The central government's constitutional authority to ensure "peace and good government" or to implement obligations contracted under an international treaty. The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is considered to be federalist , or to be an example of federalism . It can be considered in comparison with the unitary state . France and Japan , for example, have been unitary for many centuries. The Austrian Empire
13416-417: The central union government would devolve most powers to the new island governments, each led by a president. Certain forms of political and constitutional dispute are common to federations. One issue is that the exact division of power and responsibility between federal and regional governments is often a source of controversy. Often, as is the case with the United States , such conflicts are resolved through
13572-545: The coalition has been assigned plurinominal seats, they do not necessarily continue to work as a coalition in government. Throughout the 20th century, the PRI had an almost hegemonic power at the state and federal levels, which slowly began to recede in the late 1980s. Even though since the 1940s, the PAN had won a couple of seats in Congress and its first presidential municipality (in Quiroga, Michoacán ) in 1947, it wasn't until 1989 that
13728-516: The concurrent congressional elections. Both chambers were completely renewed, and no party obtained an absolute majority. This election has been noted by scholars, including Mexican sociologist Jacqueline Peschard , for the "breakdown in consensus that nearly resulted" as a result of the ensuing indeterminacy and the problems that it has posed for Mexican democracy . In 2012, Mexico elected Enrique Peña Nieto as President. In 2018, Mexico elected Andrés Manuel López Obrador as President. He ran under
13884-479: The constitution, usually a treaty, require unanimity. Over time these terms acquired distinct connotations leading to the present difference in definition. An example of this is the United States under the Articles of Confederation . The Articles established a national government under what today would be defined as a federal system (albeit with a comparatively weaker federal government). However, Canadians, designed with
14040-403: The controversial privatization program and austerity measures imposed by his administration caused the ruling party to lose ground, leading up to the controversial elections of 1988 . In the assessment of political scientist Roderic Ai Camp , "It would be fair to say that the election of Carlos Salinas de Gortari in 1988 marked the low point of that office as well as the declining legitimacy of
14196-446: The days after the earthquake that the military assisted factory owners in retrieving their machinery rather than in removing the bodies of dead factory workers. President de la Madrid was also criticized for refusing to cut foreign debt payments to use the money to help with the recovery effort (at the time, his administration destined around 30% of the federal budget towards the payments of the foreign debt). The government's response to
14352-464: The destruction extended to other parts of the country. The federal government's first public response was President de la Madrid's declaration of a period of mourning for three days starting from 20 September 1985. De la Madrid initially refused to send the military to assist on the rescue efforts, and it was later deployed to patrol streets only to prevent looting after a curfew was imposed. The earthquake created many political difficulties for
14508-411: The dissolution of the constitutional and electoral system itself to remain in power. Mexico was considered a bastion of continued constitutional government when coup d'états and military dictatorships were the norm in Latin America, in that the institutions were renovated electorally, even if only in appearance and with little participation of the opposition parties at the local level. The first cracks in
14664-443: The earthquake was widely criticized at various levels of Mexican society, being seen as both authoritarian and incompetent. As most of the collapsed buildings were of recent construction and public works projects, the government was seen at fault due to mismanagement and corruption in these constructions. The government itself realized that it could not handle the crisis alone through already-established institutions and decided to open
14820-437: The election, for the first time in many years, voting overwhelmingly for De la Madrid. De la Madrid inherited the financial catastrophe from his predecessor; Mexico experienced per capita negative growth for his entire term. De la Madrid's handling of the devastating 1985 Mexico City earthquake was his own major misstep. The end of his administration was even worse, with his choice of Carlos Salinas de Gortari as his successor,
14976-461: The entire jurisdiction is relatively homogeneous, and each constituent state resembles a miniature version of the whole; this is known as 'congruent federalism'. On the other hand, incongruent federalism exists where different states or regions possess distinct ethnic groups. The ability of a federal government to create national institutions that can mediate differences that arise because of linguistic, ethnic, religious, or other regional differences
15132-738: The existing facilities were remodeled subsidiaries. The presence of the Economic Culture Fund acquired a larger projection in the Americas: on 7 September 1990, the subsidiary in San Diego, California , was founded. On 21 June 1991 Seller Azteca opened its doors in São Paulo , Brazil . In 1994 FCE facilities were inaugurated in Venezuela, and in 1998, another subsidiary was established in Guatemala. This Thus,
15288-455: The extensive reform efforts have "leveled the playing field" for the parties. The 2006 election saw the PRI fall to third place behind the PAN and the PRD. Roberto Madrazo , the presidential candidate, polled only 22.3 percent of the vote, and the party ended up with only 106 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, a loss of more than half of what the party had obtained in 2003, and 33 seats in the Senate,
15444-531: The federal and the unitary state during its history. Some present-day states of the Brazilian federation retain borders set during the Portuguese colonization (before the very existence of the Brazilian state), whereas the latest state, Tocantins , was created by the 1988 Constitution for chiefly administrative reasons. Seven of the top eight largest countries by area are governed as federations. A unitary state
15600-771: The federation because of rising racial tension. In some cases, internal conflict may lead a federation to collapse entirely, as occurred the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , the Gran Colombia , the United Provinces of Central America , and the West Indies Federation . The federal government is the common government of a national or supranational federation. A federal government may have distinct powers at various levels authorized or delegated to it by its member states. The structure of federal governments varies. Based on
15756-408: The financing of development with excessive overseas borrowing, which was often countered by high internal capital flights. De la Madrid himself had been Minister of Budget and Programming under López Portillo, and as such he was perceived by many as being co-responsible for the crisis that he himself had to deal with upon taking office. As an immediate reaction to the economic crisis, he first presented
15912-468: The first non-PRI state governor was elected (in Baja California ). It was in 1997 that the PRI lost its absolute majority in the Congress of the Union. In 2000, the first non-PRI President since 1929 was elected in what was regarded as the cleanest Mexican election since the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1920. Since c. 2014 , four political parties have dominated the politics of Mexico:
16068-484: The first of the so-called Technocrats to become president. On the other hand, those reforms and his unwillingness to allow a primary election to choose the PRI candidate for the 1988 Presidential elections are credited as the factors which led to the split of the party in 1987, with Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and Porfirio Muñoz Ledo founding the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD by its initials in Spanish) in 1989, taking
16224-520: The government corruption that had become widespread under previous administrations, leading to the arrests of top officials of the López Portillo administration. In addition, his administration was criticized for its slow response to the 1985 Mexico City earthquake , and the handling of the controversial 1988 elections in which the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari was declared winner, amid accusations of electoral fraud . Miguel de la Madrid
16380-399: The immediate aftermath of the tragedy. President De la Madrid's biggest legacy may have been his implementation of economic neoliberal reforms in Mexico, breaking with decades of economic nationalism , and beginning mass privatization of state-run companies, a process which would be further deepened during the administration of his successor, Carlos Salinas de Gortari . De la Madrid was also
16536-692: The initiator of the European Community system, wrote that a transnational Community like the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community lay midway between an association of States where they retained complete independence and a federation leading to a fusion of States in a super-state . The Founding Fathers of the European Union wrote the Europe Declaration (Charter of the Community) at
16692-470: The institution in charge of organizing and overseeing the federal electoral processes, and must obtain at least 3% of votes in the federal elections to keep their registry. Registered political parties receive public funding for their operation and can also get private funding within the limits prescribed by the law. As of 2024, the following political parties are registered with the INE, and all have representatives in
16848-402: The interview had been broadcast, a group of PRI leaders, including Emilio Gamboa Patrón , Ramón Aguirre, Francisco Rojas, and De la Madrid's sons Enrique and Federico, arrived at De la Madrid's home and reportedly asked him to retract his statements, arguing that they could damage the party. As a result, on the same day De la Madrid issued a statement retracting the comments he had made during
17004-482: The interview with Aristegui, claiming that due to his advanced age and his poor health, he was not able to "correctly process" the questions. De la Madrid died on 1 April 2012, at 7:30 am in a Mexican hospital, following a lengthy hospitalization due to complications from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , which led to acute kidney injury and cardiac arrest . Unlike his predecessors (specially Luis Echeverría and José López Portillo ), President De la Madrid
17160-615: The interview, he said that his choice of Carlos Salinas de Gortari to succeed him in the Presidency had been a mistake and that he felt "very disappointed" in his successor, lamenting the widespread corruption of the Salinas administration. De la Madrid then directly accused Salinas of having stolen the money of the Presidential slush fund , and also accused his brother Raúl Salinas de Gortari of having ties to drug lords. Only two hours after
17316-767: The islands are neither an incorporated part of the United Kingdom nor are they considered to be independent or associated states. The islands do not have a monarch, per se ; rather in the Isle of Man the British Monarch is, ex officio , Lord of Mann , and in the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey, the British Monarch rules as the Duke of Normandy . Dependent territories , such as the British overseas territories , are vested with varying degrees of power; some enjoy considerable independence from
17472-403: The judicial system, which delimits the powers of federal and local governments. The relationship between federal and local courts varies from nation to nation and can be a controversial and complex issue in itself. Another common issue in federal systems is the conflict between regional and national interests, or between the interests and aspirations of different ethnic groups. In some federations
17628-418: The leadership of the PRI stood by President De la Madrid and confirmed Salinas as the party's presidential candidate, while expelling Cárdenas and Muñoz Ledo from the PRI, along with their followers. For the first time since the PRI took power in 1929, the elections featured two strong opposition candidates with enough popularity to beat the PRI candidate. On one hand, after he and Muñoz Ledo were expelled from
17784-425: The local Town halls in response to alleged electoral frauds. In response to these controversies, an electoral reform was conducted in 1986: Since his campaign for the presidency, De la Madrid had mentioned the importance of discussing the topic of abortion, given the high national demographic growth and the scarce resources that the country had to deal with the necessities of an ever-growing population, specially in
17940-591: The middle of the economic crisis. Upon becoming President, De la Madrid and the Attorney General Sergio García Ramírez attempted to reform the Penal Code of the Federal District to decriminalize abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy "due to failure of the contraceptive methods, fetal alterations and pregnancies due to rape, with previous medical authorization and carried out at
18096-575: The most affected by the government's policies, specially the nationalization of the Bank decreed in the last months of former President López Portillo's administration. Rather than accepting that the unpopularity and corruption of the PRI in Chihuahua had led to such a defeat, the local PRI bosses claimed that the Catholic Church, the local businessmen and even "foreign influences" had persuaded voters to support
18252-604: The most notorious being the murder of journalist Manuel Buendía in 1984 by agents of the Federal Security Directorate (Buendía had been investigating possible ties between Drug cartels, the CIA and the FSD itself). De la Madrid shut down the FSD in 1985, although in its place similar Intelligence agencies would be created in subsequent years. Finally, his administration's handling of the 1986 elections in Chihuahua and, specially,
18408-524: The official results and claimed that a massive electoral fraud had been orchestrated by the government. Nevertheless, Salinas was confirmed by the Chamber of Deputies , controlled by the PRI, as the winner. After completing his term, he became the director of the Fondo de Cultura Económica (FCE) in 1990. He implanted modernization programs in production and administration. It incorporated the most advanced techniques in book publishing and graphic arts and maintained
18564-399: The opening of the Mexican political system, and opposition parties made historic gains in elections at all levels. Many current electoral concerns have shifted from outright fraud to campaign fairness issues. During 1995–96, the political parties negotiated constitutional amendments to address these issues. Implementing legislation included major points of consensus that had been worked out with
18720-464: The openness and plurality features in the publication policy of the company. On 4 September 1992, he inaugurated the new facilities, on 227 Picacho-Ajusco Road. Surrounded by garden and offices, it hosts cultural unity Jesús Silva Herzog , the Gonzalo Robles Library, which houses the growing publishing history of the Fund, and the seller Alfonso Reyes . On the international scene in 1990,
18876-418: The opposition parties. The thrust of the new laws is that public financing predominates over private contributions to political parties, tighter procedures for auditing the political parties and strengthening the authority and independence of electoral institutions. The court system was also given greatly expanded authority to hear civil rights cases on electoral matters brought by individuals or groups. In short,
19032-447: The other hand, if federation is defined as the constitutional entrenchment of the powers of subcentral units (provinces, etc.) that is not unilaterally changeable or revocable by the central authority, South Africa does qualify, formally, as a federal state. The European Union (EU) is a sui generis political union or confederation (the assemblage of societies or an association of two or more states into one state). Robert Schuman ,
19188-439: The political establishment and the media. On Election Day 1988, the computer system used to count the votes shut down, as Cárdenas held an initial lead. That event is remembered by the phrase se cayó el sistema ("the system crashed"). When the system was restored, Carlos Salinas was declared the winner. The expression "se cayó el sistema" became a euphemism for electoral fraud. All the opposition candidates refused to recognize
19344-562: The popular sector, and the military each having a division, with power centralized. The PRM aimed to mediate conflicts between competing sectors within the party, becoming an extension of the Mexican state. In 1946, the party was transformed into the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and the army was no longer a sector. During this time, the government nationalized key industries, such as oil, and implemented land reforms that redistributed property to peasants. Mexico experienced political tension and rising economic instability throughout
19500-478: The potential for their electoral success, however, his attitude later seemed to be hostile to the advance of opposition parties, instead allowing the PRI to maintain near-absolute power of the country (at the time, the PRI still governed all of the Mexican states plus the Federal District, in addition to holding 299 of the 400 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 63 of the 64 seats in the Senate ). However, it
19656-417: The presidency in 2000 and 2006 . The PRD's beginnings date back to 1988 when dissident members of the PRI decided to challenge the leadership and nominated Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas for President of Mexico. Cárdenas lost in a highly contested election, but a new political party was born, and the party emerged as a third force in Mexican politics, even though it never captured the presidency. Morena grew out of
19812-471: The presidential candidate nominations; however, only Cárdenas's departure in 1988 resulted in the establishment of another political party ( Party of the Democratic Revolution ). The presidential election held in 1988 marked a watershed in Mexican politics, as they were the first serious threat to the party in power by an opposition candidate: Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , who was nominated by a broad coalition of leftist parties. He officially received 31.1 percent of
19968-399: The private sector began backing opposition candidates nonetheless. Given the dire economic circumstances he inherited from his predecessor, he pursued policies of economic austerity, rather than deficit spending. President De la Madrid initially stated that further democratization of the country was necessary, and the political system opened up to greater competition. As other parties showed
20124-456: The process up to "opposition groups". During his administration, Mexico hosted the 1986 FIFA World Cup . There were some protests against the tournament, as Mexico was going through an economic crisis at the time and the country was still recovering from the 1985 earthquake, therefore the World Cup was considered by many as a lavish and unnecessary expense. During the World Cup's inauguration at
20280-548: The process. Constitutionally, political parties in Mexico must promote the participation of the people in the democratic life of the country, contribute to the representation of the nation and citizens, and be the access through which citizens can participate in public office, through whatever programs, principles, and ideals they postulate. All political parties must be registered with the National Electoral Institute (Spanish: Instituto Nacional Electoral , INE),
20436-566: The provinces, to handle economic affairs and implement national policies, resulting in a system some have termed federalism " with Chinese characteristics ". Constitutionally a unitary state , the political system in Myanmar bears many elements of federalism. Each administrative division has its own cabinets and chief ministers, making it more like a federation rather than a unitary state. The French overseas collectivity Wallis and Futuna maintains some quasi-federation attributes. The territory
20592-401: The rest of his term, while the social effects of the austerity measures were particularly harsh on the lower and middle classes, with real wages falling to half of what they were in 1978 and with a sharp rise in unemployment and in the informal economy by the end of his term. De la Madrid's administration was also famous for his "Moral Renovation" campaign, whose purported goal was to fight
20748-625: The right metaphor for the mood of the country." In October 1986, a group of politicians from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , Porfirio Muñoz Ledo and Ifigenia Martínez , announced the creation of the Democratic Current ( Corriente Democrática ) within the PRI. The Democratic Current demanded the establishment of clear rules for the selection of the party's presidential candidate. When they failed, Cárdenas, Muñoz Ledo and Martínez left
20904-480: The right to sign binding treaties. Basically, a modern federal government, within the limits defined by its constitution, has the power to make laws for the whole country, unlike local governments. As originally written, the United States Constitution was created to limit the federal government from exerting power over the states by enumerating only specific powers. It was further limited by the addition of
21060-433: The second decade of the twentieth century. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw multiple protests from students and left-wing groups against PRI's authoritarian rule, to which the government responded with a crackdown that culminated in the infamous Tlatelolco Massacre of 1968, in which hundreds of protesters were killed. However, the year 1982 gave way to market restructuring policies and gradual political reforms that prompted
21216-410: The sovereign state, which only takes care of their foreign relations and defense. However, they are neither considered to be part of it nor recognized as sovereign or associated states. The distinction between a federation and a unitary state is often quite ambiguous. A unitary state may closely resemble a federation in structure and, while a central government may possess the theoretical right to revoke
21372-539: The split in the PRI with the exit of Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , and the government's handling of balloting with election results deemed fraudulent. His administration did have some bright spots, with Mexico's becoming a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1985. Mexico also was part of the Contadora process to find a solution of the conflicts in Central America. Unlike previous Mexican leaders, he
21528-496: The state-run company, the public further resented the Government and public institutions. In the morning of 19 September 1985, an 8.0 magnitude earthquake devastated Mexico City and caused the deaths of at least 5,000 people. De La Madrid's mishandling of the disaster damaged his popularity because of his initial refusal of international aid. It placed Mexico's delicate path to economic recovery in an even more precarious situation, as
21684-577: The state." In 1987, an internal conflict led to a division in the PRI, as President De la Madrid, like previous PRIísta Presidents had traditionally done, handpicked his successor for the Presidency and appointed the Secretary of Budget and Programming, Carlos Salinas de Gortari , as the PRI candidate for the 1988 elections. A group of left-wing PRI politicians, led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (the son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas ) and Porfirio Muñoz Ledo , protested Salinas' appointment as they demanded that
21840-411: The system, even though they were merely symbolic, were the 1970s reforms to the electoral system and the composition of the Congress of the Union, which for the first time incorporated proportional representation seats, allowing opposition parties to obtain seats, though limited in number, in the Chamber of Deputies. As minority parties became involved in the system, they gradually demanded more changes and
21996-415: The then-ruling Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) or Institutional Revolutionary Party . The crisis was severe enough to have tested the capabilities of wealthier countries, but the government from local PRI bosses to President de la Madrid himself exacerbated the problem aside from the lack of money. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared it would not request aid. It was also widely reported in
22152-595: The time of the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 18 April 1951 saying that Europe should be organized on a transnational foundation. They envisaged a structure quite different from a federation called the European Political Community . The EU is a three-pillar structure of the original supranational European Economic Community and the nuclear energy cooperation and non-proliferation treaty, Euratom , plus two largely intergovernmental pillars dealing with External Affairs and Justice and Home Affairs. The EU
22308-486: The vote (at the time, the biggest percentage of votes that an opposition candidate had earned in Chihuahua) did not recognize the results, and the PAN promoted acts of civil disobedience to resist the alleged fraud. Many other local elections were marked by accusations of fraud in those years, sometimes ending with violent clashes. In some small municipalities of Veracruz and Oaxaca , the local population even seized or burned
22464-407: The vote, against 50.4 percent for Carlos Salinas de Gortari , the PRI candidate, and 17.1 percent for Manuel Clouthier of the National Action Party (PAN). Some believed that Cardenas had won the election but that the then government-controlled electoral commission had altered the results after the infamous "the system crashed" ( se cayó el sistema , as it was reported). In the concurrent elections,
22620-420: Was a market-oriented president. Inflation increased on an average of 100% a year and reached to an unprecedented level of 159% in 1987. The underemployment rate soared to 25% during the mid-1980s, income declined, and economic growth was erratic since prices rose usually much faster than incomes. All that was a stark reminder of the gross mismanagement and policies of his two immediate predecessors, particularly
22776-479: Was a coalition of Mexico's three traditional parties: the center-right Revolutionary Institutional Party , the right-wing National Action Party , and the leftist Party of the Democratic Revolution . Federation List of forms of government A federation (also called a federal state ) is an entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under
22932-562: Was a unitary state with crown lands , after the transformation into the Austria-Hungary monarchy the remaining crown lands of so-called Cisleithania became federated as Länder of the Republic of Austria through the implementation of its constitution . Germany , with its 16 states, or Länder , and Nigeria , with its 36 states and federal capital territory , are examples of federations. Federations are often multi-ethnic and cover
23088-501: Was born in the city of Colima , Colima , Mexico. He was the son of Miguel de la Madrid Castro, a notable lawyer (who was assassinated when his son was only two), and Alicia Hurtado Oldenbourg. His grandfather was Enrique Octavio de la Madrid, the governor of Colima. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in law from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and received a master's degree in Public Administration from
23244-456: Was during his administration that the opposition National Action Party (also known as "PAN" for its initials in Spanish) started to become popular with the masses, especially in Northern Mexico . In 1983, during the municipal elections in the northern state of Chihuahua , the PAN won the state's nine biggest Municipalities, which held 70% of its population. The border state had been one of
23400-411: Was greeted with unusual hostility from some sectors of the political establishment--an indication of the emerging rift between the old políticos and emerging technocrats." De la Madrid did not run against a strong opposition candidate. His campaign rhetoric emphasized traditional liberal values of representation, federalism, strengthening of the legislature and the judiciary. There was massive turnout in
23556-419: Was noted for making relatively few speeches and keeping a more reserved and moderate public image. Although that has been attributed to a strategy to break with his predecessors' populist legacies, President De la Madrid's public image was considered "gray" by critics. This perception worsened with his government's slow response to the 1985 Earthquake, when President De la Madrid also rejected International aid in
23712-405: Was sworn in as Mexico's first leftist President in seven decades after winning a landslide victory in the 2018 election . In the 2021 midterm election , López Obrador's left-leaning Morena coalition lost seats in the lower house of Congress. However, his ruling coalition maintained a simple majority, but López Obrador failed to secure the two-thirds congressional supermajority. The main opposition
23868-492: Was the German Empire (1871–1918). A federacy is a unitary state that incorporates one or more self-governing autonomous areas . It is distinguished from a federation in that the constitutional structure of the state is still unitary, but incorporates federalist principles. Some federacies, notably Åland , were established through international treaty . A federation differs from a devolved state , such as Indonesia and
24024-500: Was the case with the United States and Switzerland. However, as the histories of countries and nations vary, the federalist system of a state can be quite different from these models. Australia, for instance, is unique in that it came into existence as a nation by the democratic vote of the citizens of each state, who voted "yes" in referendums to adopt the Australian Constitution . Brazil, on the other hand, has experienced both
24180-405: Was then replaced by Plutarco Elías Calles , who ruled Mexico from 1924 to 1928. After a rule change that prevented two mandates by the same person, Obregón returned to power in 1928 but was assassinated shortly after. As a result, outgoing president Calles founded a political party, the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), to solve the immediate political crisis of the assassination and to create
24336-494: Was unharmed, the incident left many officials and guests injured, including the then-director of the ISSTE , Alejandro Carrillo. On 19 November 1984, a massive series of explosions occurred at a liquid petroleum gas (LPG) tank farm in the town of San Juan Ixhuatepec (outside of Mexico City , Mexico ). The disaster was initiated by a gas leak on the site, likely caused by a pipe rupture during transfer operations, which caused
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