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139-462: In the US, there are two death investigation systems: first, the coroner system based on English law ; and second, the medical examiner system, which evolved from the coroner system during the latter half of the 19th century. The type of system varies across jurisdictions, with over 2,000 separate jurisdictions for investigating unnatural deaths . In 2002, 22 states had a medical examiner system, 11 states had

278-464: A medical degree , although in many there is no requirement for specialized training in pathology. Other jurisdictions have stricter requirements, including additional education in pathology , law, and forensic pathology . Medical examiners are typically appointed officers. In the United States, medical examiners require extensive training in order to become experts in their field. After high school,

417-518: A Chief Coroner (or Chief Medical Examiner) and comprise coroners or medical examiners appointed by the executive council . The provinces of Alberta , Manitoba , Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador now have a Medical Examiner system, meaning that all death investigations are conducted by specialist physicians trained in Forensic Pathology , with the assistance of other medical and law enforcement personnel. All other provinces run on

556-438: A board of trustees; a president, chancellor , or rector ; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties . Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards . They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in

695-490: A broader consideration within a global context. Although there are antecedents, the modern university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition. European higher education took place for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools ( scholae monasticae ), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of

834-508: A cause of death. Some coroners are elected with others appointed. Some coroners hold office by virtue of holding another office. For example, in Nebraska, a county's district attorney is also the county's coroner. Similarly, in many counties in Texas, the justice of the peace may be in charge of death investigation. In yet other places, the sheriff may be the lawful coroner. In different jurisdictions

973-404: A certain field (e.g. music, fine arts, business). They might or might not have the power to award PhD degrees, depending on the respective government legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences. Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe

1112-510: A coroner system, and 18 states had a mixed system. Since the 1940s, the medical examiner system has gradually replaced the coroner system and serves about 48% of the US population. The largest medical examiner's office in the United States is located in Baltimore , Maryland . The coroner is not necessarily a medical doctor . They may be a lawyer or a layperson. In the 19th century, the public became dissatisfied with lay coroners and demanded that

1251-412: A coroner system. In Prince Edward Island , and Ontario , all coroners are, by law, physicians . In the other provinces and territories with a coroner system, namely British Columbia , Saskatchewan , Quebec , New Brunswick , Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon , coroners are not necessarily physicians but generally have legal, medical, or investigative backgrounds. The Coroner's Court

1390-422: A dead body lying in the district of a coroner has a duty to report it to the coroner; failure to do so is an offence. This can include bodies brought into England or Wales . The coroner has a team of coroner's officers (previously often ex-police officers, but increasingly from a nursing or other paramedical background) who carry out the investigation on the coroner's behalf. A coroner's investigation may involve

1529-587: A high-profile inquest, such as those into the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and the victims of the 2005 London bombings . Coronial services in Northern Ireland are broadly similar to those in England and Wales, including dealing with treasure trove cases under the Treasure Act 1996 . Northern Ireland has three coroners, who oversee the province as a whole. They are assisted by coroners' liaison officers and

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1668-556: A higher education institution which is similar to the former polytechnics in the British education system, the English term used for these German institutions is usually 'university of applied sciences'. They can confer master's degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of teaching universities with less research and the research undertaken being highly practical. Hochschule can refer to various kinds of institutions, often specialised in

1807-535: A jury, as a check on the possible abuse of governmental power. Coroners also have a role in treasure cases. This role arose from the ancient duty of the coroner as a protector of the property of the Crown. It is now contained in the Treasure Act 1996 . This jurisdiction is no longer exercised by local coroners, but by specialist "coroners for treasure" appointed by the Chief Coroner. The coroner's former power to name

1946-410: A law school teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. The University of Bologna, or Alma Mater Studiorum , is widely recognized as the oldest university that is independent of any direct authority, such as kings, emperors, or religious organizations. Bologna's claim to being

2085-440: A medical examiner is an expert in determining a cause of death. This information can help law enforcement solve cases and is crucial to their ability to track criminals in the event of a homicide or other related events. Within the United States, there is a mixture of coroner and medical examiner systems, and in some states, dual systems. The requirements to hold office vary widely between jurisdictions. In England and Wales ,

2224-415: A medical officer. As of 2004 , of the 2,342 death investigation offices in the United States, 1,590 were coroners' offices, 82 of which served jurisdictions of more than 250,000 people. Qualifications for coroners are set by individual states and counties in the U.S. and vary widely. In many jurisdictions, little or no training is required, even though a coroner may overrule a forensic pathologist in naming

2363-584: A more equal and laic higher education system. Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental . An example is the Academy of European Law , which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and

2502-607: A new statutory Medical Examiner system based in NHS Acute Trusts commenced in 2019 and is expected to be fully operational several years later. A medical examiner is always a medical doctor , whereas a coroner is a judicial officer . Pilot studies in Sheffield and seven other areas, which involved medical examiners looking at more than 27,000 deaths since 2008, found 25% of hospital death certificates were inaccurate and 20% of causes of death were wrong. Suzy Lishman , president of

2641-767: A phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries , university is often contracted to uni . In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity"

2780-764: A result of injuries or drugs. Two different death investigation systems have developed in Canada: the Coroner's system and the Medical Examiner's system. The Coroner's system is used in the majority of provinces and territories. It is a system that is centuries old and originated in Great Britain. It is found throughout the world in countries that were former British colonies, including Canada. The Medical Examiner's system (used in Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador)

2919-465: A set of questions posed by the coroner to himself or to the jury (as appropriate). Lawful killing includes lawful self-defence . There is no material difference between an accidental death conclusion and one of misadventure. Neglect cannot be a conclusion by itself. It must be part of another conclusion. A conclusion of neglect requires that there was a need for relevant care (such as nourishment, medical attention, shelter or warmth) identified, and there

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3058-429: A significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies. Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and

3197-421: A simple review of the circumstances, ordering a post-mortem examination, or they may decide that an inquest is appropriate. When a person dies in the custody of the legal authorities (in police cells, or in prison ), an inquest must be held. In England, inquests are usually heard without a jury (unless the coroner wants one). However, a case in which a person has died under the control of central authority must have

3336-467: A small laurel or myrtle wreath (Lat. corona or serta ) on his head so that he might be accepted in glory in the afterlife. The use was already of ancient Greece and see e. g. Theophilus Christophorus Harles ( Bionis smyrnaei and Moschi syracusani quae supersunt etc. P. 40. Erlangen, 1780), who quotes Euripides, Clement of Alexandria, Chionus of Heraclea and others in this regard; see also James Claude Upshaw Downs: "The origin of official death investigation

3475-549: A spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought." After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated

3614-522: A state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural , religious or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland , which formed partly from the Catholic University of Ireland which was created almost immediately and specifically in answer to

3753-429: A suspect in the inquest conclusion and commit them for trial has been abolished. The coroner's conclusion sometimes is persuasive for the police and Crown Prosecution Service , but normally proceedings in the coroner's court are suspended until after the outcome of any criminal case is known. More usually, a coroner's conclusion is also relied upon in civil proceedings and insurance claims . The coroner commonly tells

3892-536: A very high standard in specific area of study, can be declared by the Central Government on the advice of the University Grants Commission as an Institution (Deemed-to-be-university). Institutions that are 'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a university. Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit

4031-418: Is a government or judicial official who is empowered to conduct or order an inquest into the manner or cause of death . The official may also investigate or confirm the identity of an unknown person who has been found dead within the coroner's jurisdiction. In medieval times, English coroners were Crown officials who held financial powers and conducted some judicial investigations in order to counterbalance

4170-498: Is a police officer with technical and scientific knowledge in the service of justice and a professional specialized in finding or providing so-called material evidence through the scientific analysis of traces produced and left in the commission of crimes", what, in case of the Physician-Legists (inserted in the aforementioned career), applies in relation to highly complex federal crimes involving corpses that need to be examined by

4309-423: Is another four years with the first two dedicated to academics and the rest of the two used to gain clinical experience. To become experts in pathology, specifically, additional training is required after medical school. The first step is to complete pathological forensic training. This usually consists of anatomic and clinical pathology training which takes anywhere from four to five years to complete. After this,

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4448-475: Is just over one century old and originated in the United States. Although there are some differences between the two systems, the ultimate goal of each is the same—to investigate certain deaths defined in their legislation and establish the identity of the deceased together with the cause of death and the manner of death. In 21st-century Canada the officer responsible for investigating all unnatural and natural unexpected, unexplained, or unattended deaths goes under

4587-479: Is no longer possible. Any medical coroner still in office will either have been appointed before 2013, or, exceptionally, will hold both medical and legal qualifications. Formerly, every justice of the High Court was ex officio a coroner for every district in England and Wales. This is no longer so; there are now no ex officio coroners. A senior judge is sometimes appointed ad hoc as a deputy coroner to undertake

4726-559: Is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by kings - but with prior papal approval. ( University of Naples Federico II , Charles University in Prague , Jagiellonian University in Kraków ) or municipal administrations ( University of Cologne , University of Erfurt ). In

4865-476: Is responsible to inquire into the causes and circumstances of some deaths. The Coroner is a judicial officer who has the power to: The Coroner makes orders after considering the pathologist's report. The Coroners Service is a network of Coroners situated across Ireland, usually covering areas based on Ireland's traditional counties. They are appointed by local authorities as independent experts and must be either qualified doctors or lawyers. Their primary function

5004-573: Is supervised by the Chief Coroner , a judge appointed by the Lord Chief Justice after consulting the Lord Chancellor. The Chief Coroner provides advice, guidance and training to coroners and aims to secure uniformity of practice throughout England and Wales. The post is currently part-time. The present Chief Coroner is Alexia Durran . England and Wales are divided into coroner districts by

5143-476: Is to investigate any sudden, unexplained, violent or unnatural death in order to allow a death certificate to be issued. Any death due to unnatural causes will require an inquest to be held. Two coronial services operate in New Zealand. The older one deals only with deaths before midnight of 30 June 2007 that remain under investigation. The new system operates under the Coroners Act 2006 , which: In Sri Lanka,

5282-537: Is traced to at least 44 B.C. with the Greek Physician Antistius's examination of Julius Caesar (Fisher 1993; Gawande 2001). The history of the office of coroner extends well over a millennium and has seen major evolution etc." ( Coroner and Medical Examiner in Handbook of Death and Dying ed. by Clifton D. Bryant. V. 1, p. 909. 2003.) Australian coroners are responsible for investigating and determining

5421-420: Is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns". Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have been cited as possible ways of alleviating such problems. A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents

5560-693: The Ministry of Justice appoints Inquirers into Sudden Deaths under the Code of Criminal Procedure to carry out an inquest into the death of a sudden, unexpected and suspicious nature. Some large cities such as Colombo and Kandy have a City Coroners' Court attached to the main city hospital, with a Coroner and Additional Coroner. In the United Kingdom a coroner is a specialist judge. Whilst coroners are appointed and paid by local authorities , they are not employees of those local authorities but rather independent judicial office holders who can be removed from office only by

5699-459: The Royal College of Pathologists , said it was crucial there was "independent scrutiny of causes of death". Qualifications for medical examiners in the US vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In Wisconsin , for example, some counties do not require individuals to have any special educational or medical training to hold this office. In most jurisdictions, a medical examiner is required to have

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5838-629: The United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute , a post-graduate university specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, set up by the member states of the European Union . Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have

5977-447: The early medieval period , most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries . Pope Gregory VII was crucial in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university, as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered

6116-477: The procurator fiscal and dealt with by fatal accident inquiries conducted by the sheriff for the area. The coroner's jurisdiction is limited to determining who the deceased was and how, when and where they came by their death. When the death is suspected to have been either sudden with unknown cause, violent, or unnatural, the coroner decides whether to hold a post-mortem examination and, if necessary, an inquest . The majority of deaths are not investigated by

6255-640: The 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War , disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War , plague , famine , regicide , and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and

6394-540: The 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United States, the Johns Hopkins University

6533-456: The 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher 's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom , seminars , and laboratories in universities. The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university. Until

6672-513: The Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEx) with at least five years' qualified experience. This reflects the role of a coroner: to determine the cause of death of a deceased in cases where the death was sudden, unexpected, occurred abroad, was suspicious in any way, or happened while the person was under the control of central authority (e.g., in police custody ). Until 2013 a qualified medical practitioner could be appointed, but that

6811-547: The Crown, derived from the French couronne and Latin corona , meaning "crown". The office of the coroner dates from approximately the 11th century, shortly after the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The office of coroner was established by lex scripta in Richard I 's England. In September 1194, it was decreed by Article 20 of the " Articles of Eyre " to establish the office of custos placitorum coronae ( Latin for "keeper of

6950-522: The Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries , the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries. The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as

7089-500: The Education Services for Overseas Students Act (ESOS). In the United States there is no nationally standardized definition for the term university , although the term has traditionally been used to designate research institutions and was once reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such as Massachusetts , will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees . In

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7228-675: The Forensic Medicine and Dentistry Sector linked to the National Institute of Criminalistics. Throughout the federative units , the Civil Polices (in Federal District and other 8 States ) or Scientific Polices (in all other 18 States) disposes of their own Legal-Medical Institutes (mainly responsible for confirming the authorship, dynamics and materiality of offenses involving living beings or their respective corpses) and, with

7367-516: The Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first type

7506-414: The Lord Chancellor, each district consisting of the area or areas of one or more local authorities. The relevant local authority, with the consent of the Chief Coroner and the Lord Chancellor, must appoint a senior coroner for the district. It must also appoint area coroners (in effect deputies to the senior coroner) and assistant coroners, to the number that the Lord Chancellor considers necessary in view of

7645-664: The Lord Chief Justice and the Lord Chancellor. The Ministry of Justice , which is headed by the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice , is responsible for coronial law and policy. However it has no operational responsibility for the running of coroners' courts. There are separate coroners services for England and Wales and for Northern Ireland . There are no longer coroners in Scotland. Coroners existed in Scotland between about 1400 and 1800 when they ceased to be used. Now deaths requiring judicial examination are reported to

7784-473: The Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in the way of developing commerce and therefore were eventually abolished, the scholars guild did not. According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it." By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by

7923-503: The U.S., the coroner has the authority to arrest the county sheriff or assume their duties under certain circumstances. For example, in Indiana, Colorado, Idaho, Kentucky, Ohio, Alabama, and North Carolina, statutes grant coroners these powers, serving as a check on the sheriff's authority. In Ohio, the coroner can assume the sheriff’s duties if the sheriff is incapacitated or otherwise unable to act. Duties always include determining

8062-569: The United Kingdom, the Privy Council is responsible for approving the use of the word university in the name of an institution, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 . In India, a new designation deemed universities has been created for institutions of higher education that are not universities, but work at a very high standard in a specific area of study ("An Institution of Higher Education, other than universities, working at

8201-609: The United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement. There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and

8340-538: The United States, there are fewer than 500 board-certified forensic pathologists, but the National Commission on Forensic Science estimates the country needs 1,100–1,200 to perform the needed number of autopsies. The shortage is attributed to the nature of the work and the higher pay in other medical specialties. It has caused long delays in some states and resulted in fewer investigations and less thorough investigations in some cases. Coroner A coroner

8479-670: The University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran , with the formation of the University of Strathclyde . The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe. In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills;

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8618-486: The University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government." During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800),

8757-447: The additional schooling may take 11–18 years. They must attend a college or university to earn a bachelor's degree sufficient for admission to medical school. Biology is usually the most common. A medical degree (MD or DO) is often required to become a medical examiner. To enter medical school, the MCAT (Medical College Admissions Test) is usually required after which medical school

8896-467: The advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There

9035-489: The amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact. The situation in Germany is similar; public universities usually do not charge tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, almost always charge tuition fees. The Adjustments of Original Institutions of

9174-445: The books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy , and metaphysics ; while Hippocrates , Galen , and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. The quality of instruction in the different areas of study varied, depending on

9313-600: The case of medical examiners , such activity has always been privative to physicians , but necessarily policeful , reason why its common denomination, Médicos-Legistas (Physician-Legists), is due to such bionicity. In the Department of Federal Police , according to the National Association of Federal Forensic Experts ( Associação Nacional dos Peritos Criminais Federais – APCF ), "the Federal Forensic Expert

9452-485: The cause is unknown, where a death is the result of poisoning or industrial injury, or if it occurred in police custody or prison. The coroner's court is a court of law , and accordingly the coroner may summon witnesses. Those found to be lying are guilty of perjury . Additional powers of the coroner may include the power of subpoena and attachment , the power of arrest , the power to administer oaths , and sequester juries of six during inquests. Any person aware of

9591-483: The cause of death for those cases reported to them. In all states and territories, a coroner is a magistrate with legal training, and is attached to a local court. Five states – New South Wales , Queensland , South Australia , Victoria and Western Australia – also have state coroners and specialised coronial courts. In Tasmania , the Chief Magistrate also acts as the state coroner. In Brazil, almost like in

9730-449: The cause, time and manner of death. The coroner/ME typically uses the same investigatory skills of a police detective because the answers are available from the circumstances, scene, and recent medical records. Many American jurisdictions require that any death not certified by an attending physician be referred to the medical examiner for the location where the death occurred. Only a small percentage of deaths require an autopsy to determine

9869-537: The city from many lands entering into a contract to gain this knowledge, eventually organising themselves into Nationes , divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the power ... and dominated the masters". All over Europe, rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from

10008-511: The confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the Scientific Revolution . Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been

10147-581: The continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state . As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership

10286-536: The coroner be replaced by a physician. In 1918, New York City introduced the office of the Chief Medical Examiner and appointed physicians experienced in the field of pathology. In 1959, the medical subspecialty of forensic pathology was formally certified. The types of death reportable to the system are determined by federal, state, or local laws. Commonly, these include violent, suspicious, sudden, and unexpected deaths, death when no physician or practitioner

10425-408: The coroner's jurisdiction. A coroner's office typically maintains death records of those who have died within the coroner's jurisdiction. The additional roles that a coroner may oversee in judicial investigations may be subject to the attainment of suitable legal and medical qualifications. The qualifications required of a coroner vary significantly between jurisdictions and are described below under

10564-420: The coroner. If the deceased has been under medical care, or has been seen by a doctor within 14 days of death, then the doctor can issue a death certificate. However, if the deceased died without being seen by a doctor, or if the doctor is unwilling to make a determination, the coroner will investigate the cause and manner of death. The coroner will also investigate when a death is deemed violent or unnatural, where

10703-480: The county records became an independent office, which after 1836 was held by the lord-lieutenant of each county. The person who found a body from a death thought sudden or unnatural was required to raise the " hue and cry " and to notify the coroner. While coronial manuals written for sheriffs, bailiffs, justices of the peace and coroners were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, handbooks specifically written for coroners were distributed in England in

10842-707: The demand for higher education have sprung up. In Canada, college generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while university connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings ) into large research universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University ); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but are not geared toward research (such as Waterloo ); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier ). In Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have

10981-449: The eighteenth century. Coroners were introduced into Wales following its military conquest by Edward I of England in 1282 through the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. Going further back in time, we find that the term comes from antiquity, namely when the deceased was entrusted to the coronator , that is to a necrofor who prepared the corpse according to custom and, among other things, put

11120-545: The entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge. The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There

11259-419: The entry for each jurisdiction. Coroners, medical examiners and forensic pathologists are different professions. They have different roles and responsibilities. The office of coroner originated in medieval England and has been adopted in many countries whose legal systems have at some time been subject to English or United Kingdom law . In Middle English, the word "coroner" referred to an officer of

11398-440: The exception of Paraná , the Physician-Legists constitute a police career of their own. According to Statistics Canada , Death investigation is the responsibility of each individual Canadian province and territory—there is no overarching federal authority. As a result, each province and territory has developed their own system and legislation to fulfill the mandate of investigating deaths that are unexpected, unexplained, or as

11537-478: The highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during

11676-417: The intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris . Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at

11815-547: The interests of education. Today, this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom". This is now a widely accepted concept in international research. On 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum , marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of

11954-413: The jury which conclusions are lawfully available in a particular case. The most common short-form conclusions include: Alternatively, an inquest may return a narrative conclusion , a brief statement explaining the circumstances how the person came about their death. A coroner giving a narrative conclusion may choose to refer to the other conclusion. A narrative conclusion may also consist of answers to

12093-531: The later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium – the preparatory arts of grammar , rhetoric and dialectic or logic –and the quadrivium : arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy . The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It

12232-695: The madrasas in Al-Andalus , the Emirate of Sicily , and the Middle East during the Crusades . Norman Daniel, however, views this argument as overstated. In 2013, Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara claimed that the influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe requires a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to

12371-451: The medical examiner does not need any medical or educational qualifications. Not all U.S. jurisdictions use a coroner system for medicolegal death investigation—some operate with only a medical examiner system, while others operate on a mixed coroner–medical examiner system. In the U.S., the terms "coroner" and "medical examiner" vary widely in meaning by jurisdiction, as do qualifications and duties for these offices. Advocates have promoted

12510-442: The medical examiner model as more accurate given the more stringent qualifications. Local laws define the deaths a coroner must investigate. The most often legally required investigation is for sudden or unexpected deaths, in addition to deaths where no attending physician was present. Additionally, the law often requires investigations for deaths that are suspicious (as defined by jurisdiction) or violent. In several states across

12649-467: The most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state. Modern universities constitute a guild or quasi-guild system. This facet of the university system did not change due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy; as commerce developed between towns in Europe during

12788-798: The non-denominational universities which had been set up in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading up to the Easter Rising , and in no small part a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture . Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for

12927-465: The oldest university is based on its unique characteristics, such as its autonomy and its ability to grant degrees. The conventional date for the start of teaching at Bologna of 1088, or 1087 according to some, records when Irnerius commenced teaching Emperor Justinian's 6th-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis , recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in

13066-459: The physical character and population of the district. The cost of the coroner service for the district falls upon the local authority or authorities concerned, and thus ultimately upon the local inhabitants. There are 98 coroners in England and Wales, covering 109 local authority areas. To become a coroner in England and Wales the applicant must be a qualified solicitor , barrister , or a Fellow of

13205-466: The physician may complete an anatomic pathology residency or a fellowship . Before practicing as a medical examiner, the physician must also become board certified through the American Board of Pathology . The general job outlook for medical examiners in the United States is considered to be excellent. Remuneration varies by location, but it is estimated to average between $ 105,000 and $ 500,000. In

13344-420: The pleas of the Crown"), from which the word "coroner" is derived. This role provided a local county official whose primary duty was to protect the financial interest of the Crown in criminal proceedings. The office of coroner is, "in many instances, a necessary substitute: for if the sheriff is interested in a suit, or if he is of affinity with one of the parties to a suit, the coroner must execute and return

13483-425: The power of sheriffs or bailiffs . Depending on the jurisdiction, the coroner may adjudge the cause of death personally, or may act as the presiding officer of a special court (a " coroner's jury "). The term coroner derives from the same source as the word crown . Responsibilities of the coroner may include overseeing the investigation and certification of deaths related to mass disasters that occur within

13622-566: The power to confer bachelor, master and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot be founded without government approval. The term Universität (i.e. the German term for university) is protected by law and any use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are always research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule ). Fachhochschule means

13761-434: The primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain ) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on

13900-399: The process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this " scholasticism " were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became

14039-509: The process of the courts of justice." This role was qualified in Chapter 24 of Magna Carta in 1215, which states: "No sheriff, constable, coroner or bailiff shall hold pleas of our Crown." "Keeping the pleas" was an administrative task, while "holding the pleas" was a judicial one that was not assigned to the locally resident coroner but left to judges who traveled around the country holding assize courts . The role of custos rotulorum or keeper of

14178-589: The promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship." In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power

14317-551: The qualifications of their members. In modern usage, the word has come to mean "an institution of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees". The earlier emphasis on its corporate organization is no longer the primary feature by which a modern university is recognized. The original Latin word referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe , where this form of legal organisation

14456-491: The regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities. The first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna ( c.  1180–1190 ), the University of Paris ( c.  1208–1210 , later associated with the Sorbonne ), and the University of Oxford ( c.  1200–1214 ). The University of Bologna began as

14595-429: The resources available through private benefactors. By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for

14734-538: The scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise developed with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The recovery of Aristotle 's works – more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated – fuelled

14873-441: The scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources. Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for

15012-470: The source of their finances. The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over

15151-564: The system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on

15290-465: The terms "coroner" and " medical examiner " are defined differently. In some places, stringent rules require that the medical examiner be a forensic pathologist. In others, the medical examiner must be a physician, though not necessarily a pathologist nor further specialized forensic pathologist; physicians with no experience in forensic medicine have become medical examiners. In other jurisdictions, such as Wisconsin, each county sets standards, and in some,

15429-502: The texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri. Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa , known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of

15568-700: The time, cause and manner of death. University A university (from Latin universitas  'a whole') is an institution of higher (or tertiary ) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines . University is derived from the Latin phrase universitas magistrorum et scholarium , which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The first universities in Europe were established by Catholic monks . The University of Bologna ( Università di Bologna ), Italy , which

15707-476: The title "coroner" or "medical examiner" depending on location. They do not determine civil or criminal responsibility, but instead make and offer recommendations to improve public safety and prevention of death in similar circumstances. Coroner or Medical Examiner services are under the jurisdiction of provincial or territorial governments, and in modern Canada generally operate within the public safety and security or justice portfolio. These services are headed by

15846-404: The training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in

15985-400: The translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of

16124-462: The universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first European university was founded, there were 29 universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, 28 new ones were created, with another 18 added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with

16263-451: The university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno , Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism

16402-408: The university's focus. This led scholars to travel north or south based on their interests and means. The universities also awarded different types of degrees. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to

16541-430: The university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship. Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence

16680-402: The use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices. Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within

16819-506: The works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. Galileo Galilei , who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua , and Martin Luther , who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate

16958-513: The world, and may provide university accommodation for their students. The definition of a university varies widely, even within some countries. Where there is clarification, it is usually set by a government agency. For example: In Australia, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the higher education sector. Students rights within university are also protected by

17097-486: The world. An early institution, often called a university, is the Harran University , founded in the late 8th century . Scholars occasionally call the University of al-Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859 CE, a university, although Jacques Verger  [ fr ] writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience. Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin

17236-574: Was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization. Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy , logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and rhetoric . Aristotle

17375-497: Was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century. In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students look to get 'student grants' to cover the cost of university. In 2016, the average outstanding student loan balance per borrower in the United States was US$ 30,000. In many U.S. states, costs are anticipated to rise for students as a result of decreased state funding given to public universities. Many universities in

17514-449: Was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with

17653-471: Was an opportunity to offer or provide that care that was not taken. An open conclusion should only be used as a last resort and is given where the cause of death cannot be identified on the evidence available to the inquest. Conclusions are arrived at on the balance of probabilities ; prior to 2020, conclusions of suicide or unlawful killing were required to be proved to the criminal standard of beyond reasonable doubt. The coroner service in England and Wales

17792-617: Was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still have some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example

17931-464: Was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963. The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers. As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of

18070-413: Was founded and run as a madrasa until after World War II . They date the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963. In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years later. Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by

18209-573: Was founded in 1088, is the first university in the sense of: The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation , etc". As urban town life and medieval guilds developed, specialized associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights (these rights were usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes , prelates , or their towns ) became denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined

18348-472: Was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited

18487-428: Was increasingly appointed by the state. Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There

18626-703: Was present or treating the decedent, inmates in public institutions, those in custody of law enforcement , deaths during or immediately following therapeutic or diagnostic procedures or deaths due to neglect . A medical examiner's duties vary by location, but typically include: In some jurisdictions , a coroner performs these and other duties. It is common for a medical examiner to visit crime scenes or to testify in court . Medical examiners specialize in forensic knowledge and rely on this during their work. In addition to studying cadavers , they are also trained in toxicology , DNA technology and forensic serology (blood analysis). Pulling from each area of knowledge,

18765-477: Was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world. An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom . The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna , which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita , in 1155 or 1158, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in

18904-527: Was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis . Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within

19043-446: Was the first to adopt the (German) research university model and pioneered the adoption of that model by most American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany." In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering , a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of

19182-553: Was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported

19321-436: Was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply

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