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80-544: Massospondylus ( / ˌ m æ s oʊ ˈ s p ɒ n d ɪ l ə s / mas-oh- SPON -di-ləs ; from Greek , μάσσων (massōn, "longer") and σπόνδυλος (spondylos, "vertebra")) was a genus of sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Early Jurassic ( Hettangian to Pliensbachian ages , ca. 200–183  million years ago ). It was described by Sir Richard Owen in 1854 from remains discovered in South Africa , and

160-403: A copper alloy laced with lead. Since the beginning of metallurgy the majority of castings were simple one to two piece molds fashioned from either stone or ceramics. However, there is evidence of lost wax castings in numerous ancient civilizations. The lost wax process originated in ancient Mesopotamia . The earliest known record of lost-wax casting is a clay tablet written in cuneiform in

240-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

320-405: A Massospondylidae in their phylogenetic analysis, including Massospondylus , Coloradisaurus , and Lufengosaurus , as well as their new genus, Glacialisaurus . Adeopapposaurus , based on the fossils once thought to belong to a South American form of Massospondylus , was also classified as a massospondylid, as was Leyesaurus , another South American genus that was named in 2011. Pradhania

400-494: A clay cylinder so molten metal could be poured down the center, filling and solidifying in the open spaces. This process allowed one hundred coins to be produced simultaneously. In the Middle East and West Africa the lost wax technique was used very early in their metallurgy traditions while China adopted it much later. In Western Europe lost wax techniques are considered to have been hardly used especially in comparison to that of

480-402: A distinct taxon of massospondylid. Massospondylus was a mid-size sauropodomorph, around 4 metres (13 ft) in length, and weighed approximately 1000 kilograms (2200 lb), although a few sources have estimated its length at up to 6 metres (20 ft). It was a typical early sauropodomorph, with a slender body, a long neck and a proportionally very small head. The vertebral column

560-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

640-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

720-425: A monophyletic Prosauropoda. Wilson (2005) considered Massospondylus , Jingshanosaurus , Plateosaurus , and Lufengosaurus a natural group, with Blikanasaurus and Antetonitrus possible sauropods. Bonnan and Yates (2007) considered Camelotia , Blikanasaurus and Melanorosaurus possible sauropods. Yates (2007) placed Antetonitrus , Melanorosaurus , and Blikanasaurus as basal sauropods and declined to use

800-484: A nearly complete skeleton, and Hoepen also named Dromicosaurus gracilis , which consisted of a partial skeleton. Gryponyx taylori was named by Sidney H. Haughton in 1924. It consists of hip bones. All of the above fossils come from the Hettangian or Sinemurian faunal stages of South Africa, where Massospondylus has been found. Under the rules of zoological nomenclature, these names are junior synonyms . Massospondylus

880-543: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

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960-671: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

1040-830: A skull and a largely complete postcranial skeleton in the Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontological Research, as the neotype specimen. Massospondylus remains have been found in the Upper Elliot Formation, the Clarens Formation , and the Bushveld Sandstone of South Africa and Lesotho , as well as the Forest Sandstone of Zimbabwe . These remains consist of at least 80 partial skeletons and four skulls, representing both juveniles and adults. The report of Massospondylus from Arizona's Kayenta Formation

1120-609: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as

1200-402: A state of flux, it is unclear which other dinosaurs—if any—belong in a natural grouping of massospondylids; several 2007 papers support the family's validity. Although Massospondylus was long depicted as quadrupedal , a 2007 study found it to be bipedal . It was probably a plant eater ( herbivore ), although it is speculated that the early sauropodomorphs may have been omnivorous . The genus

1280-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

1360-446: Is a common means of making washstands, washstand tops and shower stalls, with the skilled working of multiple colors resulting in simulated staining patterns as is often found in natural marble or travertine . Raw castings often contain irregularities caused by seams and imperfections in the molds, as well as access ports for pouring material into the molds. The process of cutting, grinding, shaving or sanding away these unwanted bits

1440-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

1520-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

1600-445: Is attributed as one of the first civilizations to use casting methods to mass produce coins. Around the middle of the first millennium BC (1000 BC - 1 BC), coins used were made from silver but as the millennium progressed the coins shifted to a cast copper alloy. New technology was developed to mass produce the new copper coins. Introduced was a multi piece stackable coin template mold. Multiple molds were placed on top of one another into

1680-461: Is based on a skull described in 1985. The skull of the Kayenta specimen from Arizona is 25% larger than the largest skull from any African specimen. The Kayenta specimen possesses four teeth in the premaxilla and sixteen in the maxilla . Uniquely among dinosaurs, it also had tiny, one-millimetre-(0.04 in-) long palatal teeth. A 2004 restudy of African Massospondylus skulls, however, indicated that

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1760-501: Is based on a tooth from the Upper Cretaceous Takli Formation of Maharashtra . M. hislopi was tentatively retained as an indeterminate sauropodomorph in the latest review, but M. rawesi may be a theropod or nondinosaur. M. huenei is a combination derived by Cooper for Lufengosaurus huenei , as he considered Lufengosaurus and Massospondylus to be synonyms. This synonymy is no longer accepted. M. kaalae

1840-446: Is called "fettling" in UK english. In modern times robotic processes have been developed to perform some of the more repetitive parts of the fettling process, but historically fettlers carried out this arduous work manually, and often in conditions dangerous to their health. Fettling can add significantly to the cost of the resulting product, and designers of molds seek to minimize it through

1920-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

2000-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

2080-693: Is flat and lacks transparency. Often topical treatments are applied to the surface. For example, painting and etching can be used in a way that give the appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the material is altered in its initial casting process and may contain colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete, rather than plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A simulation of high-quality marble may be made using certain chemically-set plastic resins (for example epoxy or polyester which are thermosetting polymers ) with powdered stone added for coloration, often with multiple colors worked in. The latter

2160-466: Is the type species . Other named species include: M. browni Seeley , 1895, M. harriesi Broom 1911, M. hislopi Lydekker , 1890, M. huenei Cooper, 1981, M. kaalae Barrett 2009, M. rawesi Lydekker, 1890, and M. schwarzi Haughton , 1924. M. browni , M. harriesi , and M. schwarzi were all found in the Upper Elliot Formation of Cape Province , South Africa. All three are based on fragmentary material, and were regarded as indeterminate in

2240-533: Is thus one of the first dinosaurs to have been named. Fossils have since been found at other locations in South Africa, Lesotho , and Zimbabwe . Material from Arizona 's Kayenta Formation , India , and Argentina has been assigned to the genus at various times, but the Arizonan and Argentinian material are now assigned to other genera. The type species is M. carinatus ; seven other species have been named during

2320-745: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

2400-462: The Lower Jurassic Canon del Colorado Formation of San Juan , Argentina. lt was assigned to Adeopapposaurus in 2009. A specimen from South Africa previously assigned to Massospondylus , BP/1/4779, became the holotype of the new genus and species Ngwevu intloko in 2019. Many species have been named, although most are no longer considered valid. M. carinatus , named by Richard Owen,

2480-461: The lateral temporal fenestrae immediately behind the eye sockets, which were shaped like an inverted "T" in Massospondylus , and the supratemporal fenestrae on top of the skull. Small fenestrae also penetrated each mandible . The shape of the skull is traditionally restored as wider and shorter than that of Plateosaurus , but this appearance may be due just to differential crushing experienced by

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2560-439: The maxilla , the tooth count ranges from 14 to 22. There are 26 teeth in each side of the lower jaw in the largest known skull. The height of the teeth crowns decreases from front to back in the upper jaw, but was more or less constant in the lower jaw. The lack of pronounced tooth wear and the variable height of the crowns suggests that the teeth were replaced by succeeding new ones in relatively short time intervals. Notably, there

2640-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

2720-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

2800-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

2880-746: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs,   Casting Throughout history, metal casting has been used to make tools, weapons, and religious objects. Metal casting history and development can be traced back to Southern Asia (China, India, Pakistan, etc). Southern Asia traditions and religions relied heavily on statue and relic castings. These items were frequently made from

2960-511: The Indus valley civilization. There were no pieces of lost wax found in the capital of Anyang during the Shane dynasty (1600-1040 BC) while a large amount (100,000 pieces) of piece-mould fragments were found. This led to the conclusion that lost wax was not performed in the capital during this dynasty. However, the discovery of a mask made using the investment moulding dated at around 1300 BC indicated that

3040-423: The Kayenta specimen did not pertain to Massospondylus . This Kayenta skull and associated postcranial elements, identified collectively as MCZ 8893, was referred to the new genus Sarahsaurus in 2010. Massospondylus had also been reported from Argentina , but the material has been reassessed as a closely related but distinct genus. The fossils included several partial skeletons and at least one skull, found in

3120-420: The above-mentioned Leptospondylus and Pachyspondylus , as well as Aristosaurus , Dromicosaurus , Gryponyx taylori and Hortalotarsus , which are dubious names of little scientific value. Together with Massospondylus carinatus , Owen named Leptospondylus capensis and Pachyspondylus orpenii for vertebrae from the same unit and location. Aristosaurus erectus was named by E.C.N. van Hoepen in 1920 based on

3200-408: The ancient city of Sparta, Babylon, which specifically records how much wax is needed to cast a key. The earliest-known castings in the global archaeological record were made in open stone molds. There are two types of lost wax methods, direct lost wax method and indirect lost wax method. The direct molding method is to make the wax material into the same wax mold as the casting by hand or other tools;

3280-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

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3360-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

3440-408: The casting process (such as the runners and risers). Plaster and other chemical curing materials such as concrete and plastic resin may be cast using single-use waste molds as noted above, multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made of small rigid pieces or of flexible material such as latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete, the material surface

3520-463: The casting with iron bands. In metalworking, metal is heated until it becomes liquid and is then poured into a mold. The mold is a hollow cavity that includes the desired shape, but the mold also includes runners and risers that enable the metal to fill the mold. The mold and the metal are then cooled until the metal solidifies. The solidified part (the casting) is then recovered from the mold. Subsequent operations remove excess material caused by

3600-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

3680-611: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

3760-487: The entire casting manufacturing route. Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early ' 70s , mainly in Europe and in the U.S. , and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the late ' 80s , commercial programs (such as PoligonSoft, AutoCAST and Magma) are available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what

3840-661: The finds as those of a dinosaur; instead he attributed them to "large, extinct, carnivorous reptiles" that were related to modern lizards , chameleons , and iguanas . The material, a collection of 56 bones, was found in 1853 by the government surveyor Joseph Millard Orpen in the Upper Elliot Formation at Harrismith , South Africa and was donated to the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London. Among

3920-454: The fluidity of molten copper, allowing them to cast more intricate designs. For example, the dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro is a copper alloy casting that most likely utilizes the lost wax technique. Lost wax casting can be dated back to 4000 BC or the Chalcolithic period. One of the oldest studied examples of this technique is a 6,000-year old amulet from Indus valley civilization . India

4000-663: The forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been

4080-454: The front of the skull were two large, elliptical nares , which were roughly half the size of the orbits. The orbits were proportionally larger in Massospondylus than in related genera, such as Plateosaurus . The antorbital fenestrae , smaller than those seen in Plateosaurus , were situated between the eyes and the nose. At the rear of the skull were two more pairs of temporal fenestrae :

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4160-726: The group in phylogenetic nomenclature , on the grounds that their inclusion would not constitute a clade (a natural grouping containing all descendants of a single common ancestor). Yates and Kitching (2003) published a clade consisting of Riojasaurus , Plateosaurus , Coloradisaurus , Massospondylus , and Lufengosaurus . Galton and Upchurch (2004) included Ammosaurus , Anchisaurus , Azendohsaurus , Camelotia , Coloradisaurus , Euskelosaurus , Jingshanosaurus , Lessemsaurus , Lufengosaurus , Massospondylus , Melanorosaurus , Mussaurus , Plateosaurus , Riojasaurus , Ruehleia , Saturnalia , Sellosaurus , Thecodontosaurus , Yimenosaurus and Yunnanosaurus in

4240-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

4320-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

4400-513: The indirect molding method is to make the wax mold through the mold. The direct molding method requires craftsmen to have a high technical level, otherwise the quality of castings cannot be guaranteed. However, the limitation of manual direct molding is that its efficiency is too low to achieve mass production. In this regard, indirect moulding has advantages. In indirect moulding, artisans usually make moulds from stone, wood, clay or other plastic materials. Early civilizations discovered lead aided in

4480-403: The length of their width. The forelimbs were only half the length of the hindlimbs but quite powerful, as indicated by the broad upper end of the humerus that provided attachment areas for a large arm musculature. Like Plateosaurus , it had five digits on each hand and foot. The hand was short and wide, with a large sickle shaped thumb claw used for feeding or defense against predators. The thumb

4560-471: The lost wax technique may have influenced other regions in China. Historians debate the origin of the development of the cannon but most evidence points to Turkey and Central Asia in the 18th and 19th century. The casting process of a cannon is a bit more complex with the use of a clay core, a template which has clay moulded around it and then broken out followed by an assembly in a casting pit that involves binding

4640-598: The most recent review. M. browni is based on two cervical , two back, and three caudal vertebrae and miscellaneous hind limb elements. M. harriesi is known from a well-preserved forelimb and parts of a hindlimb. M. schwarzi is known from an incomplete hind limb and sacrum . M. hislopi and M. rawesi were named from fossils found in India . M. hislopi is based on vertebrae from the Upper Triassic Maleri Formation of Andhra Pradesh , whereas M. rawesi

4720-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

4800-400: The past 150 years, but only M. kaalae is still considered valid. Early sauropodomorph systematics have undergone numerous revisions during the last several years, and many scientists disagree where exactly Massospondylus lies on the dinosaur evolutionary tree. The family name Massospondylidae was once coined for the genus, but because knowledge of an early sauropod relationship is in

4880-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

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4960-1128: The position of Massospondylus within Massospondylidae, according to Fernando E. Novas and colleagues, 2011: Eucnemesaurus Riojasaurus Massospondylus Pradhania Coloradisaurus Lufengosaurus Glacialisaurus Yunnanosaurus Jingshanosaurus Anchisaurus Melanorosaurus Sauropoda The following cladogram shows the position of Massospondylus within Massopoda, according to Oliver W. M. Rauhut and colleagues, 2020: Eucnemesaurus Riojasaurus [REDACTED] Sarahsaurus Yunnanosaurus Jingshanosaurus [REDACTED] Seitaad Coloradisaurus Glacialisaurus [REDACTED] Lufengosaurus Massospondylus [REDACTED] Adeopapposaurus Leyesaurus Xingxiulong Anchisaurus Leonerasaurus [REDACTED] Mussaurus [REDACTED] Aardonyx Ancient Greek Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes

5040-558: The putative caudal vertebrae of Massospondylus were actually cervical vertebrae and that all the material probably belongs only to a single species. On May 10, 1941, the Hunterian Museum was demolished by a German bomb, destroying all the fossils; only casts remain. Because the plaster casts of the lost type specimen fossils were not adequate to accurately diagnose a genus and species under modern taxonomic practices and for research purposes, Yates and Barrett (2010) designated BP/1/4934,

5120-488: The remains were vertebrae from the neck, back, and tail; a shoulder blade; a humerus ; a partial pelvis; a femur; a tibia ; and bones of the hands and feet. All these bones were found disarticulated, making it difficult to determine if all material belongs to a single species or not. However, Owen was able to distinguish three different types of caudal vertebrae, which he attributed to three different genera: Pachyspondylus , Leptospondylus and Massospondylus . Massospondylus

5200-413: The required component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy , material, and tooling savings. The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment , and finishing. This saves costs along

5280-499: The shape of the mold, the material being cast, and sometimes by including decorative elements. Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality considering mold filling, solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast component's quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to

5360-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

5440-713: The term Prosauropoda, as he considered it synonymous with Plateosauridae. However, he did not rule out the possibility that a small group of prosauropods consisting of Plateosaurus , Riojasaurus , Massospondylus and their closest kin were monophyletic. Massospondylus is the type genus of the proposed family Massospondylidae , to which it gives its name. The Massospondylidae may also include Yunnanosaurus , although Lu et al. (2007) placed Yunnanosaurus in its own family. Yates (2007) considered Massospondylus , Coloradisaurus , and Lufengosaurus massospondylids, with Yunnanosaurus in Anchisauria . Smith and Pol (2007) also found

5520-450: The tip of the lower jaw to make up the difference in length and account for tooth wear on the teeth at the tip of the snout. However, the difference in length may be a misinterpretation based on crushing in a top–bottom plane, and the possession of a beak is considered unlikely in recent studies. Basal sauropodomorph systematics continue to undergo revision, and many genera once considered classic "prosauropods" have recently been removed from

5600-439: The various specimens. Some features of the skull are variable between individuals; for example, the thickness of the upper border of the orbit and the height of the posterior maxilla . These differences may be due to sexual dimorphism or individual variation. Tooth count is variable between individuals and increases with skull size. The premaxilla shows the constant number of four teeth per side in all known skulls; however, in

5680-492: Was 4–6 metres (13–20 ft) long, and had a long neck and tail and a small head and slender body. On each of its forefeet, it bore a sharp thumb claw that was used in defense or feeding. Recent studies indicate that Massospondylus grew steadily throughout its lifespan, possessed air sacs similar to those of birds, and may have cared for its young. The first fossils of Massospondylus were described by paleontologist Sir Richard Owen in 1854. Originally, Owen did not recognize

5760-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

5840-404: Was composed of nine cervical (neck) vertebrae, 13 dorsal (back) vertebrae, three sacral (hip) vertebrae, and at least 40 caudal (tail) vertebrae. The pubis faced forward, as with most saurischians . It had a slighter build than that of Plateosaurus , an otherwise similar dinosaur. The neck was proportionally longer than in most other plateosaurids , with the foremost cervicals being four times

5920-513: Was described in 2009 on the basis of a partial skull from the Upper Elliot Formation in Eastern Cape of South Africa. The species is known from the same time and region as some specimens of M. carinatus . It differs from the type species in the morphology of the braincase, as well as in several other characters of the skull such as the proportions of the premaxilla. Several genera have been previously synonymized with Massospondylus . These include

6000-429: Was described in a scientific paper; therefore the name Massospondylus takes priority. Ignavusaurus , known from a young specimen, was considered by Yates et al. (2011) to be a probable synonym of Massospondylus . Cladistic analyses by Chapelle & Choiniere (2018) and Chapelle et al. (2019) agreed with Yates et al. (2011) in demonstrating the massospondylid nature of Ignavusaurus , but nevertheless recovered it as

6080-417: Was originally regarded as a more basal sauropodomorph but new cladistic analysis performed by Novas et al. , 2011 suggests that Pradhania is a massospondylid . Pradhania presents two shared traits of the Massospondylidae recovered in their phylogenetic analysis, and the fossils of Pradhania were discovered from the same region and basin in India as M. hislopi . The following cladogram shows

6160-408: Was proposed because there are a few large holes for blood vessels on the surfaces of the jaw bones, unlike the numerous small holes present on the jaws of cheekless reptiles. The cheeks would have prevented food from spilling out when Massospondylus ate. Crompton and Attridge (1986) described skulls of Massospondylus as possessing pronounced overbites and suggested the presence of a horny beak on

6240-400: Was separated from the other two genera on the basis of its much longer caudal vertebrae, which also led to the scientific name that has been derived from the Greek terms masson /μάσσων 'longer' and spondylos /σπόνδυλος 'vertebra', explained by Owen as "because the vertebrae are proportionally longer than those of the extinct Crocodile called Macrospondylus ". However, later it was shown that

6320-405: Was the longest finger in the hand, while the fourth and fifth digits were tiny, giving the forepaws a lopsided look. The small head of Massospondylus was approximately half the length of the femur . Numerous openings, or fenestrae , in the skull reduced its weight and provided space for muscle attachment and sensory organs. These fenestrae were present in pairs, one on each side of the skull. At

6400-643: Was variation in the tooth morphology based on the position of the teeth in the jaw. The heterodonty present in Massospondylus is greater than that present in Plateosaurus , although not as pronounced as the specialization of teeth in Heterodontosaurus . Teeth closer to the front of the snout had round cross-sections and tapered to points, unlike the back teeth, which were spatulate and had oval cross-sections. As with other early sauropodomorphs, it has been proposed that Massospondylus had cheeks. This theory

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