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103-605: Mao developed the mass line into an organizing methodology that encompasses philosophy, strategy, tactics, leadership, and organizational theory , which has been applied by many communists subsequent to the Chinese Communist Revolution: from Che Guevara in Latin America , to Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam . Many CCP leaders have attributed their attainment of power to the faithful pursuit of effective "mass line" tactics, and

206-543: A policy statement in his text, On New Democracy : "The content of China's new culture at the present stage is... the anti-imperialist anti-feudal new democracy of the popular masses led by the culture and thought of the proletariat". During the Yan'an Rectification Movement (1942-1944), the CCP used various methods to consolidate ideological unity among cadres around Maoism (as opposed to Soviet-style Marxism–Leninism). The immediate spur to

309-473: A "complete socialist order", the CCP intensified its cadre training program in 1950–1951 to ensure that all cadres and other workers would be "carefully indoctrinated in basic Marxist-Leninist mass line theory and practice". The problem was deemed so serious, that CCP leadership temporarily deferred several important social reforms pending the completion of the cadre training program. In 1958, regulation required Military Officers to work one month each year in

412-553: A "correct" mass line is supposed to be the essential prerequisite for the full consolidation of power. In its original conception, the mass line referred to both an ideological goal as well as a working method based on "pooling the wisdom of the masses" ( simplified Chinese : 集中群众智慧 ; traditional Chinese : 集中群眾智慧 ; pinyin : jízhōng qúnzhòng zhìhuì ) from which CCP leadership could formulate policy after further deliberation, adjustments, implementation and experimentation, which would in turn continue to receive feedback from

515-442: A 'right to the office' develops, there is a decrease in career opportunities for ambitious new hires and overall technical efficiency becomes less guaranteed. In a bureaucracy, salaries are provided to officials. The amount is determined on the basis of rank and helps to signify the desirability of a position. Bureaucratic positions also exist as part of stable career tracks that reward office-holders for seniority. Weber argues that

618-459: A company or any sort of work environment has the opportunity and right to disagree or to speak up if they are unhappy with something rather than not voice their opinion in fear of losing their job. Open communication is a very important part of Weber's bureaucracy, and is practiced today. Because of the communication it may not be the most efficient, but Weber would argue that improved human conditions are more important than efficiency. Weber's theory

721-458: A regulated way for resources to be allocated. Formalization is a way to standardize organizational behavior. As a result, there will be stable expectations, which create the rational organizational system. Scientific management : Frederick Winslow Taylor analyzed how to maximize the amount of output with the least amount of input. This was Taylor's attempt to rationalize the individual worker by: Problems arose out of scientific management. One

824-489: A report to the 7th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party ,emphasizing the necessity of selfless leadership, accountable to the masses. Thus, certain mass points had to be instilled in the minds of party members. One of such was the paramount importance of external audit of leadership by the masses. After recognizing that large numbers of cadres properly trained in mass line tactics were necessary to build

927-458: A series of interrelated concepts that involve the sociological study of the structures and operations of formal social organizations . Organizational theory also seeks to explain how interrelated units of organization either connect or do not connect with each other. Organizational theory also concerns understanding how groups of individuals behave, which may differ from the behavior of an individual. The behavior organizational theory often focuses on

1030-611: A shift to wage dependence, externalities from industrialization also created a perfect opportunity for the rise of organizations. Various negative effects such as pollution, workplace accidents , crowded cities, and unemployment became rising concerns. Rather than small groups such as families and churches being able to control these problems as they had in the past, new organizations and systems were required. These organizations were less personal, more distant, and more centralized, but what they lacked in locality they made up for in efficiency. Along with wage dependency and externalities,

1133-410: A specific ruler, not an institution. The hierarchical nature of bureaucracies allows employees to demonstrate achieved social status. When an officeholder is elected instead of appointed, that person is no longer a purely bureaucratic figure. He derives his power "from below" instead of "from above." When a high-ranking officer selects officials, they are more likely to be chosen for reasons related to

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1236-411: A superior means the abandonment of bureaucratic principles. He articulates that providing a status incentive to inferior officers helps them to maintain self-respect and fully participate in hierarchical frameworks. Michel Crozier reexamined Weber's theory in 1964 and determined that bureaucracy is flawed because hierarchy causes officers to engage in selfish power struggles that damage the efficiency of

1339-492: A theory of bureaucracy is Max Weber . In Economy and Society , his seminal book published in 1922, Weber describes its features. Bureaucracy, as characterized in Weber's terminology of ideal types , is marked by the presence of positions that are earned and not inherited. Rules govern decision-making. Those in positions of authority demonstrate professionalism. There is a chain of command and position-defined responsibility. Authority

1442-498: A theory. Suggestions to view organizations as a series of logical relationships between its participants have found its way into the theoretical relationships between diverging organizational theories as well, as explains the interdisciplinary nature of the field. In 1820 , about 20% of the United States population depended on a wage income . That percentage increased to 90% by 1950. Generally, by 1950, farmers and craftsmen were

1545-400: A unified body of knowledge in which each development builds carefully on and extends the one before it. Rather, developments in theory and descriptions for practice show disagreement about the purposes and uses of a theory of organization, the issues to which it should address itself (such as supervisory style and organizational culture), and the concepts and variables that should enter into such

1648-686: A unified cultural policy. For three years after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the main message of the CCP art organizations, such as the Chinese People's Anti-Japanese Drama Society, was to "oppose Japan" ( 反日 , fǎnrì ) or "resist Japan" ( 抗日 , kàngrì ). In 1938, the CCP established the Lu Xun Academy of Fine Arts in Yan'an (Yenan), which was to train people in literature, music, fine arts, and drama. In 1940, Mao issued

1751-506: Is also part of a long spanning Marxist–Leninist "epistemology ( zhishi lun ) or methodology ( fangfa lun )". Mao acknowledged inspiration in the October Revolution and subsequent formation of Vladimir Lenin's Vanguard Party . Mass line also exhibits elements of ancient Chinese beliefs, which emphasized the importance of wise rulers reading signs of popular discontent in order to avoid social calamity. Some argue that Mao's conception of

1854-417: Is bounded. Weber begins his discussion of bureaucracy by introducing the concept of jurisdictional areas : institutions governed by a specific set of rules or laws. In a jurisdictional area, regular activities are assigned as official duties. The authority to assign duties is governed by a set of rules. Duties are fulfilled continuously by qualified individuals. These elements make up a bureaucratic agency in

1957-424: Is controversial and by no means accepted by all sociologists. There are certainly both positive and negative consequences to bureaucracy and strong arguments for both the efficiency and inefficiency of bureaucracies. While Max Weber's work was published in the late 1800s and early 1900s, before his death in 1920, his work is still referenced today in the field of sociology. Weber's theory of bureaucracy claims that it

2060-665: Is extremely efficient, and even goes as far as to claim that bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization. Weber claimed that bureaucracies are necessary to ensure the continued functioning of society, which has become drastically more modern and complex in the past century. Furthermore, he claimed that without the structured organization of bureaucracy, our complex society would be much worse off, because society would act in an inefficient and wasteful way. He saw bureaucracies as organizations driven towards certain goals, which they could carry out efficiently. In addition, within an organization that operates under bureaucratic standards,

2163-615: Is formally articulated in the 1927 Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan , which Mao wrote while working in Changsha . Among other observations, the Hunan Report highlighted the challenges to and successes of local communist mobilization. In 1948, Mao would claim that the discussion of mass line had been ongoing for "the past dozen years". This situates its conception in

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2266-586: Is goal-directed. Organizational theory covers both intra-organizational and inter-organizational fields of study. In the early 20th century, theories of organizations initially took a rational perspective but have since become more diverse. In a rational organization system, there are two significant parts: Specificity of Goals and Formalization. The division of labor is the specialization of individual labor roles, associated with increasing output and trade. Modernization theorist Frank Dobbin wrote that "modern institutions are transparently purposive and that we are in

2369-788: Is governments role to listen to the scattered ideas of the masses, turn them into systemic ones, and return them back to the people as a guide for action. This is a process by which leadership refines the views of the people, "pooling the wisdom of the masses", while constantly adjusting and testing decisions in an "endless spiral" of improvement. Pragmatic considerations evident in mass line include its ability to reconcile central leadership with mass consultation. It alleviates "two problematic tendencies" that occur with centralization: losing touch with popular sentiment and creating political apathy among citizens. Some have gone as far as to speculate that Mao's success resulted from his understanding of how government can employ mass line to its strength. Mass line

2472-618: Is no such thing as art-for-art's-sake. The Talks became the most important guiding document of the Yan'an Rectification Movement. After the formal publication of the Talks in October 1943, the Communist Party's Central Committee issued two circulars stating that all Communist Party Members should study the Talks, stating that they were the Sinicization of Marxism and Leninism . Implementing

2575-418: Is not fulfilled the rest of them are unable to work in unison, leaving the organization performing below its full potential. One characteristic that was meant to improve working conditions was his rule that "Organization follows hierarchical principle – subordinates follow orders or superiors, but have right of appeal (in contrast to more diffuse structure in traditional authority)." In other words, everyone in

2678-499: Is not perfectly instantiated in real life. The elements of his theory are understood as "ideal types" and are not perfect reflections of individuals in their organizational roles and their interactions within organizations. Some individuals may regard Weber's model as good way to run an organization. A rational organization system has two significant parts: (1) specificity of goals and (2) formalization. Goal specification provides guidelines for specific tasks to be completed along with

2781-657: Is still ongoing, and is "not a short-term movement" according to the People's Daily . A new official website was launched, focusing on the mass line. In his own words, Xi has described the campaign in terms of "purification" of the CCP, often involving the elimination of " hedonism and extravagance", although the purification implied is sometimes extended metaphorically to issues such as "reducing air pollution". As part of this campaign, Xi Jinping has declared that "All Party organs and members should be frugal and make determined efforts to oppose ostentation and reject hedonism", although

2884-440: Is that the standardization leads workers to rebel against mundanes. Another may see workers rejecting the incentive system because they are required to constantly work at their optimum level, an expectation that may be unrealistic. The concept of formal organization has been touched upon by a number of authors in the subject of organizational theory, such as Max Weber , whose bureaucratic models could be said to be an extension of

2987-407: Is the argument of efficiency. Highest efficiency, in theory, can be attained through pure work with no regard for the workers (for example, long hours with little pay), which is why oversimplification can be dangerous. If we were to take one characteristic focusing on efficiency, it would seem like Weber is promoting unhealthy work conditions, when in fact, he wanted the complete opposite. Taking all of

3090-589: Is to collect the opinions of these mass statesmen, sift and refine them, and return them to the masses who then take them and put them into practice ”. On June 1, 1943, Mao formally articulated this message, the essence of mass line, in a report to the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . In the report, titled Resolution of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on Methods of Leadership, Mao argued that correct governance comes "from

3193-547: The 1920s with the Hawthorne studies , which gave emphasis to "affective and socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations." The study, taking place at the "Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company between 1927 and 1932," would make Elton Mayo and his colleagues the most important contributors to the neoclassical perspective. There was a wave of scholarly attention to organizational theory in

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3296-472: The Cultural Revolution led to a new CCP-sanctioned form of political art, revolutionary opera . Conversely, certain forms of art, such as the works of Beethoven , Respighi , Dvorak , and Chopin , were condemned in CCP papers as " bourgeois decadence". Cai writes that over time, the important principles of the Yan'an Talks became increasingly simplified, ultimately resulting in the dogmatizing of

3399-603: The labor force by management. Taylor identifies four inherent principles of the scientific management theory: Division of labor is the separation of tasks so that individuals may specialize, leading to cost efficiency. Adam Smith linked the division of labor to increased efficiency and output. According to Smith, the division of labor is efficient for three reasons: (a) occupational specialization, (b) savings from not changing tasks, and (c) machines augmenting human labor. Occupational specialization leads to increased productivity and distinct skill. Furthermore, Smith argued that

3502-462: The modern worldview is the idea that "modern institutions are transparently purposive and that we are in the midst an extraordinary progression towards more efficiency." This concept epitomizes the goal of modern firms, bureaucracies, and organizations to maximize efficiency. The key to achieving this goal is through scientific discoveries and innovations. Dobbin discusses the outdated role of culture in organizations. "New Institutionalists" explored

3605-452: The 17-year-old-son of a high-ranking military officer for an alleged connection to a gang rape. Perhaps 20,000 party officials were punished within the first year of the revival campaign. Academic Alexander Korolev argues that: "If implemented not as a propaganda tool but as a mechanism of interest articulation and aggregation, the mass line has the potential to offer China alternative routes of democratization ." As part of his emphasis on

3708-418: The 1930s at the beginning of the Yan'an Rectification Movement (1935–1947). Mao's published works reflect this: in a speech given at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art in 1942, mass line was articulated as an unofficial doctrine of communism. In one section, Mao argues that cultural workers have a role to play in the revolutionary army just as peasants do, emphasizing that artists and their like must serve

3811-427: The 1950s, Western culture utilized mass-media to communicate their good fortune—attributed to modernization. The coverage promoted "economic mobility" among the social class and increased the aspirations of many hopefuls in developing economic countries. Under this theory, any country could modernize by using Western civilization as a template. Although this theory of modernization seemed to pride itself on only

3914-587: The 1950s, which from some viewpoints held the field to still be in its infancy. A 1959 symposium held by the Foundation for Research on Human Behavior in Ann Arbor, Michigan , was published as Modern Organization Theory . Among a group of eminent organizational theorists active during this decade were E. Wight Bakke , Chris Argyris , James G. March , Rensis Likert , Jacob Marschak , Anatol Rapoport , and William Foote Whyte . The scholar most closely associated with

4017-540: The Central Committee published a directive condemning as a "principal weakness of the Party's propaganda" a failure to effectively give "systematic guidance and control of various levels of party organizations". The directive said that "One of the inborn duties of a Communist lies in the incessant effort to carry out propaganda among the people so as to educate them, to wage relentless war against all reactionary and mistaken conceptions and principles, and to promote as well as raise

4120-554: The Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, Chicago. The company was producing bells and other electric equipments for the telephone industry. Prominent professors in the research team included psychologist Elton Mayo , sociologists Roethlisberger and Whilehead, and company representative William Dickson. The team conducted four separate experimental and behavioral studies over a seven-year period. These were: The Hawthorne studies helped conclude that "a human/social element operated in

4223-460: The Party and the popular masses". During the Maoist era the state supported a range of mass organizations, coordinated by the CCP through its united front system. The most significant of the mass organizations encompassed large numbers of people from major social groups, including workers through trade unions, students, youth, and women. Their purpose was to "penetrate society, to bring vast sections of

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4326-495: The Party can systematically sum up after analysis and coordination the experiences and views of the masses and turn them into the Party's views, and then taking the resulting ideas back to the masses, explaining and popularizing them until the masses embrace the ideas as their own... " The next period would see a grappling with the role of leadership in mass line. In the 1957 essay On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among

4429-413: The Party in the choice of propaganda matter and methods appropriate for different periods of time". Earlier directives connected the need to boost consciousness of the mass line with criticisms and self-criticisms in the press. CCP members were supposed to "be trained to appreciate that criticism and self-criticism in newspapers and periodicals are necessary methods for strengthening the relations between

4532-575: The People , Mao outlines a new application of mass line feedback between leadership and masses. Arguing that bureaucracy has eroded mass line's efficacy, Mao proposes that intellectuals among the masses engage in a critique of government in what would come to be known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign . These critiques were promptly shut down when they became critical of government. An Anti-Rightist Campaign followed from 1957 to 1959. While mass line

4635-529: The United States allowed not only for the development of organizations, but also for their spread and growth. Wage dependency, externalities, and growth of industries all played into the change from individual, family, and small-group production and regulation to large organizations and structure. As people implemented organizations over time, many researchers have experimented as to which organizational theory fits them best. The theories of organizations include bureaucracy, rationalization (scientific management), and

4738-399: The Yan'an Talks was the growth in respectability of folk styles. The Yan'an Talks also provided political legitimacy to traditional Chinese novel forms such as episodic chapters. Key quotations from Yan'an Talks form the basis of the section on "Culture and Art" in the Maoist text Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong . The Gang of Four 's dramatic interpretation of the Yan'an Talks during

4841-460: The Yan'an Talks, Mao argued that it was important for art to depict allies and enemies clearly, urging artists to expose the cruelty of enemies and the inevitability of their defeat. Artists were also instructed to extol "the masses of the people, their toil and their struggle, their army and their Party." Mao also expressed that there are no absolute criteria for evaluating art, only contextual and pragmatic considerations. In this view, there

4944-578: The Yan'an talks was a request by a concerned writer for Mao Zedong to clarify the ambiguous role of intellectuals in the CCP. Thus began a three-week conference at the Lu Xun Academy about the objectives of and methods of creating CCP art. Mao delivered the Yan'an Talks in May 1942. The Yan'an Talks outlined the CCP's policy on "mass culture" (Chinese: 群众文化 ; pinyin: qúnzhòng wénhuà ) in China, which

5047-437: The army, workers in the factories and peasants in the villages" as audiences, just because they were illiterate. He was particularly critical of Chinese opera as a courtly art form, rather than one directed towards the masses. However, he encouraged artists to draw from China's artistic legacy as well as international art forms in order to further socialism. Mao also encouraged literary people to transform themselves by living in

5150-409: The benefit of the superior than the competency of the new hire. When high-skilled employees are necessary for the bureaucracy and public opinion shapes decision-making, competent officers are more likely to be selected. According to Weber, if 'tenure for life' is legally guaranteed, an office becomes perceived as less prestigious than a position that can be replaced at any time. If 'tenure for life' or

5253-483: The benefits, countries in the Middle East saw this movement in a different light. Middle Eastern countries believed that the media coverage of modernization implied that the more "traditional" societies have not "risen to a higher level of technological development." Consequently, they believed a movement that benefits those who have the monetary resources to modernize technological development would discriminate against

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5356-612: The bureaucratic system. First of all, he noted that bureaucracies are ruled by very few people with considerable unregulated power. A consequence is oligarchy, whereby a limited number of officials gain political and economic power. Furthermore, Weber considered further bureaucratization to be an "inescapable fate" because it is thought to be superior to and more efficient than other forms of organization. Weber's analysis led him to believe that bureaucracies are too inherently limiting of individual human freedom. He feared that people would begin to be too controlled by bureaucracies. In his view,

5459-408: The case of the state and bureaucratic enterprises in the private sector. There are several additional features that make up a Weberian bureaucracy: Weber argued that in a bureaucracy, taking on a position or office signifies an assumption of specific duties necessary for the smooth running of the organization. This conception is distinct from historical working relationships in which a worker served

5562-424: The cessation of traditional methods in order to pursue more contemporary effective methods of organization. Urbanization is an inevitable characteristic of society because the formation of industries and factories induces profit maximization . It is fair to assume that along with the increase in population, as a result of the subsequent urbanization, is the demand for an intelligent and educated labor force. After

5665-413: The characteristics of Weber's theory have to all be perfect for a bureaucracy to function at its highest potential. "Think of the concept as a bureau or desk with drawers in it, which seems to call out to you, demanding that everything must fit in its place." If one object in the drawer does not fit properly, the entire drawer becomes untidy, which is exactly the case in Weber's theory; if one characteristic

5768-416: The characteristics that to Weber are hallmarks of bureaucracy, he recognized that a pure bureaucracy is nearly impossible to attain. Though his theories include characteristics of a highly efficient organization, these characteristics are only meant to serve as a model of how a bureaucratic organization works, recognizing that the manifestation of that model in life differs from the pure model. With this said,

5871-415: The classical perspective: the scientific management and bureaucracy theory. A number of sociologists and psychologists made major contributions to the study of the neoclassical perspective, which is also known as the human relations school of thought. The human relations movement was a movement which had the primary concerns of concentrating on topics such as morale, leadership. This perspective began in

5974-418: The communist program. In 1956, the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party was held. In contrast with Liu Shaoqi's emphasis on the "audit by the masses" in his 7th Congress Report, the 8th Congress emphasized leadership's role as the director of the mass line. This was articulated by Deng Xiaoping in his report: " Whether the Party can remain correct in leadership will be determined by whether

6077-422: The concept of relying heavily on mass media for the betterment of society. The last wave of modernization theory, which took place in the 1990s, depicts impersonality. As the use of newspapers, television, and radio becomes more prevalent, the need for direct contact, a concept traditional organizations took pride in, diminishes. Thus, organizational interactions become more distant. According to Frank Dobbin,

6180-589: The concept. In Chester Barnard 's book The Functions of the Executive , formal organization is defined as "a system of contributors' activities that are consciously coordinated by the organization's purpose." This differs from informal organization, such as a human group, that consists of individuals and their interactions, but do not require these to be coordinated toward some common purpose, although formal organizations also consist of informal organizations, as sub-parts of their system. The scientific management theory

6283-431: The consciousness of a new society. In particular, cultural work should be viewed as a transformative experience which would built revolutionary relationships among cultural workers, the masses, and the CCP. Mao articulated five independent although related categories of creative consideration for cultural production: (1) class stand, (2) attitude, (3) audience, (4) work style, and (5) popularization/massification. In

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6386-607: The country into decades of reform. While partially honouring the legacy of Mao in his 1981 Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China , Deng's leadership placed a lesser emphasis on Maoist egalitarianism and collectivism fundamental to mass line. One of the distinctive features of the national leadership of Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping has been

6489-536: The country. The two main points were that (1) all art should reflect the life of the working class and consider them as an audience, and (2) that art should serve politics, and specifically the advancement of socialism . During the Long March (1934-1935), the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and People's Liberation Army (PLA) used song, drama, and dance to appeal to the civilian population, but did not have

6592-532: The countryside, and to study the popular music and folk culture of the areas, incorporating both into their works. Mao stated that transformations in the social relations of production required development of a new societal consciousness. Mao stated that in addition to reorganizing production, a revolution should create a culture in which the interests and needs of a working culture take priority. In this view, socialist literature should not merely reflect existing culture, but should help culturally produce

6695-456: The development of a money economy is the "normal precondition for the unchanged survival, if not the establishment, of pure bureaucratic administrations." Since bureaucracy requires sustained revenues from taxation or private profits in order to be maintained, a money economy is the most rational way to ensure its continued existence. Weber posits that officials in a bureaucracy have a property right to their office and attempt at exploitation by

6798-479: The division of labor. Each theory provides distinct advantages and disadvantages when applied. The classical perspective emerges from the Industrial Revolution in the private sector and the need for improved public administration in the public sector. Both efforts center on theories of efficiency. Classical works have seasoned and have been elaborated upon in depth. There are at least two subtopics under

6901-399: The effects of various environmental and internal constraints, and that the ability to navigate this requisite variety may depend upon the development of a range of response mechanisms. Dwight Waldo in 1978 wrote that "[o]rganization theory is characterized by vogues, heterogeneity , claims and counterclaims." Organization theory cannot be described as an orderly progression of ideas or

7004-486: The growth of industry also played a large role in the development of organizations. Markets that were quickly growing needed workers urgently, so a need developed for organizational structures to guide and support those new workers. Some of the first New England factories initially relied on the daughters of farmers; later, as the economy changed, they began to gain workers from the former farming classes, and finally, from European immigrants. Many Europeans left their homes for

7107-610: The inclusion of all involved stakeholders in decision-making. The teleological view of Weberian bureaucracy postulates that all actors in an organization have various ends or goals, and attempt to find the most efficient way to achieve these goals. "There is dangerous risk of oversimplification in making Weber seem cold and heartless to such a degree that an efficiently-run Nazi death camp might appear admirable." In reality, Weber believed that by using human logic in his system, organizations could achieve improvement of human condition in various workplaces. Another critique of Weber's theory

7210-430: The interpretation of what this means seems to have varied from one province to the next somewhat. Hebei province reportedly reduced public spending on official receptions by 24%, cancelled the order of 17,000 new cars, and punished 2,750 government officials. The Economist reported two specific examples of punishments under the new mass line: the suspended death sentence for corruption given to Liu Zhijun and charging

7313-640: The mass line reflected his faith in the people as well as a theory of "history from below." The principle of the mass line is reflected in the Party slogan " serve the people ". The legacy of mass line principles is also reflected in the interpersonal relationships between party officials in local party branches and the people in their jurisdictions. In many localities, county and township-level officials are required to visit villages in their jurisdictions to personally acquaint themselves with residents and their needs. Academic Jing Vivian Zhan describes China's petitioning system as related to mass line principles. Through

7416-449: The mass line, Xi states that officials should "pay more grassroots visits to listen to opinions from the masses ... think like the masses ... spare no efforts in eliminating public grievances and safeguarding people's interests." According to Steiner, the mass line is closely related to the CCP's propaganda apparatus. Despite the vast output from the CCP's propaganda apparatus, in January 1951

7519-541: The masses," and is delivered back "to the masses". This required strict adherence to two principles: combining the "general with the particular" and "leadership with the masses". In asserting this, Mao answered challenges proposed in the Hunan Report by summarizing lessons learned in the Yan'an Rectification Movement. The report was passed by the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party in 1943. In 1945, Liu Shaoqi delivered

7622-413: The masses. The methodology is as follows: Thus, the mass line is a method in which theory is refined by practice, with leadership flowing "to the masses - from the masses - to the masses". In doing this, a line of feedback is formed between leaders and masses, representing the aggregate interests of ordinary people on their behalf, in a Maoist political line , ostensibly derived "from the peasants". It

7725-449: The members will be better off due to the heavy regulation and detailed structure. Not only does bureaucracy make it much more difficult for arbitrary and unfair personal favors to be carried out, it also means that promotions and hiring will generally be done completely by merit. Weber regarded bureaucracies as goal-driven, efficient organizations. But he also acknowledged their limitations. Weber recognized that there are constraints within

7828-415: The midst of an extraordinary progression towards more efficiency." Max Weber 's conception of bureaucracy is characterized by the presence of impersonal positions that are earned and not inherited, rule-governed decision-making , professionalism , chain of command , defined responsibility, and bounded authority. Contingency theory holds that an organization must try to maximize performance by minimizing

7931-532: The minorities and poor masses. Thus, they were reluctant to modernize because of the economic gap it would create between the rich and the poor. The growth of modernization took place beginning in the 1950s. For the ensuing decade, people analyzed the diffusion of technological innovations within Western society and the communication that helped it disperse globally. This first "wave," as it became known, had some significant ramifications. First, economic development

8034-715: The modern organizations and lead them in the direction that will maximize profits efficiently. Thus, the modernity of organizations is to generate maximum profit, through the use of mass media, technological innovations, and social innovations in order to effectively allocate resources for the betterment of the global economy . The Neoclassical perspective began with the Hawthorne studies in the 1920s. This approach gave emphasis to "affective and socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations." The Hawthorne study suggested that employees have social and psychological needs along with economic needs in order to be motivated to complete their assigned tasks. This theory of management

8137-400: The monotonous atmosphere that division of labor creates; repeatedly performing routines may not suit everyone. Furthermore, division of labor gives rise to employees that are not familiar with other parts of the job. They cannot assist employees of different parts of the system. Modernization "began when a nation's rural population started moving from the countryside to cities." It deals with

8240-491: The only people not dependent on working for someone else. Prior to that time, most people were able to survive by hunting and farming their own food, making their own supplies, and remaining almost fully self-sufficient. As transportation became more efficient and technologies developed, self-sufficiency became an economically poor choice. As in the Lowell textile mills , various machines and processes were developed for each step of

8343-430: The organization. Weber identified the following components of bureaucracy as essential: When a bureaucracy is implemented, it can provide accountability, responsibility, control, and consistency. The hiring of employees will be an impersonal and equal system. Although the classical perspective encourages efficiency, it is often criticized as ignoring human needs. Also, it rarely takes into consideration human error or

8446-456: The people by becoming one with the masses. Becoming one with the masses was also asserted as a strategy by which leaders and local organizers could form a common language, Maoism , allowing them to unite and "analyze China's problems and propose solutions": “ Revolutionary statesmen, the political specialists who know the science or art of revolutionary politics, are simply the leaders of millions upon millions of statesmen—the masses. Their task

8549-587: The petitioning system, citizens can register complaints about socioeconomic problems with government departments and provide a mechanism for the state to collect political inputs from, and remain in contact with, the public. Throughout Mao Zedong's early revolutionary activity among the peasantry of the Hunan Province, he preached that the CCP must rely on the masses for its strength, serve their needs, "draw inspiration" from them, and orient its political ideology and organizational tactics to their responsiveness. This

8652-409: The political consciousness of the masses." The directive called for the establishment of networks of "propaganda officers"—one in every party cell—and "reporting officers" at higher levels. Propaganda activity was to be conducted among the masses under strict control and in "fixed activity programs". Among other duties, propaganda officers were to maintain "constant public contact" so they could "assist

8755-674: The population further into the party's net," Frederick Teiwes writes. The largest self-proclaimed Maoist party in the US, the Revolutionary Communist Party , which proclaims itself adopted the concept of "mass line" during the 1970s. Organizational theory 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville  ·  Marx ·  Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto ·  Tönnies · Veblen ·  Simmel · Durkheim ·  Addams ·  Mead · Weber ·  Du Bois ·  Mannheim · Elias Organizational theory refers to

8858-532: The principles of the Yan'an Talks involved the creation of new literary forms and content tailored to the socialist transformation of China and its culture, an endeavor that was much more complex than applying ideological standards to measure existing artistic forms. As summarized by academic Cai Xiang, the great writers of the period embraced this endeavor, while the practice was essentially inaccessible to hacks. An immediate change in Chinese music that resulted from

8961-433: The production process, thus making mass production a cheaper and faster alternative to individual production. In addition, as the population grew and transportation improved, the pre-organizational system struggled to support the needs of the market. These conditions made for a wage-dependent population that sought out jobs in growing organizations, leading to a shift away from individual and family production. In addition to

9064-444: The promises of US industry, and about 60% of those immigrants stayed in the country. They became a permanent class of workers in the economy, which allowed factories to increase production and produce more than they had before. With this large growth came the need for organizations and for leadership that was not previously needed in small businesses and firms. Overall, the historical and social context in which organizations arose in

9167-428: The ranks as common soldiers. Bureaucrats were under similar pressures to learn from peasants, leading many to adopt the practice of personally inspecting locales. Liu Shaoqi, for example, frequented Tianjin , the municipality where his wife was born. Across many programs implemented throughout the 1950s, the focus was the "delicate area" of leadership relations with the unconverted masses: those who had not yet bought into

9270-453: The reality of the workers and peasantry. For the 70th anniversary of the Yan'an Talks in May 2012, a group of 100 Chinese writers and artists including Mo Yan participated in hand-copying the text of the Yan'an Talks as a celebration. On 15 October 2014, General Secretary XI Jinping emulated the Yan'an Talks with his Speech at the Forum on Literature and Art. Consistent with Mao's view in

9373-553: The requirements for literature during the Cultural Revolution, which undermined the radicalism of China's socialist literature. After the death of Mao and the rise of reformist leaders like Deng Xiaoping , who condemned the Cultural Revolution, the Yan'an talks were officially reevaluated. In 1982, the CCP declared that Mao's doctrine that "literature and art are subordinate to politics" was an "incorrect formulation", but it reaffirmed his main points about art needing to reflect

9476-530: The revival of the mass line in CCP theory and praxis. Xi's ideological contributions, described as Xi Jinping Thought , seek to reinvigorate the mass line. In 2013, Xi initiated the first of his Party's Education Programs on Selected Themes, which addressed the mass line. This program sought to address four types of harmful behaviors by party cadres and to require cadres to conduct self-examination and self-criticism in front of their subordinates and to solicit criticism from their subordinates. As of 2014, this revival

9579-400: The significance of culture in the modern organization. However, the rationalist worldview counters the use of cultural values in organizations, stating, "transcendental economic laws exist, that existing organizational structures must be functional under the parameters of those laws, [and] that the environment will eliminate organizations that adopt non-efficient solutions." These laws govern

9682-424: The skill of workers should be matched with the technology they employ. Although division of labor is often viewed as inevitable in a capitalism, several problems emerge. These problems include alienation , lack of creativity, monotony, and lack of mobility. Adam Smith himself foresaw these problems and described the mental torpor the division of labor could create in workers. Creativity will naturally suffer due to

9785-527: The strict methods of administration and legitimate forms of authority associated with bureaucracy act to eliminate human freedom. Weber tended to offer a teleological argument with regard to bureaucracy. Weber's idea of bureaucracy is considered teleological to the extent that he posits that bureaucracies aim to achieve specific goals. Weber claimed that bureaucracies are goal-oriented organizations that use their efficiency and rational principles to reach their goals. A teleological analysis of businesses leads to

9888-630: The variability of work performances (since each worker is different). In the case of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster , NASA managers overlooked the possibility of human error. (See also: Three Mile Island accident .) Weber believed that a bureaucracy consists of six specific characteristics: hierarchy of command, impersonality, written rules of conduct, advancement based on achievement, specialized division of labor, and efficiency. This ultimate characteristic of Weberian bureaucracy , which states that bureaucracies are very efficient,

9991-585: The workplace and that productivity increases were as much an outgrowth of group dynamics as of managerial demands and physical factors." The Hawthorne studies also concluded that although financial motives were important, social factors are just as important in defining the worker-productivity. The Hawthorne Effect was the improvement of productivity between the employees, characterized by: Yan%27an Forum The Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art ( simplified Chinese : 延安文艺座谈会 ; traditional Chinese : 延安文藝座談會 ; pinyin : Yán'ān Wén Yì Zuòtánhuì )

10094-399: Was a May 1942 forum held in the Yan'an Soviet and a significant event in the Yan'an Rectification Movement . It is most notable for the speeches given by Mao Zedong , later edited and published as Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art ( Chinese : 在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话 ; pinyin : Zài Yán'ān Wén Yì Zuòtánhuì shàng de Jiǎnghuà ) which dealt with the role of literature and art in

10197-486: Was a product of the strong opposition against "the Scientific and universal management process theory of Taylor and Fayol ." This theory was a response to the way employees were treated in companies and how they were deprived of their needs and ambitions. In November 1924, a team of researcher – professors from the renowned Harvard Business School began investigating into the human aspects of work and working conditions at

10300-427: Was emphasized in the late 1950 and into the 1960s, its practice became less clear. This has led some to argue that post 1960s China was "a situation of unprecedented mass activity without the mass line". By Mao's death on September 9, 1976, his own role had been elevated to the point that he had become the defining factor in the mass line. In 1977, the new preeminent political leader of China, Deng Xiaoping, would move

10403-405: Was enhanced from the spread of new technological techniques. Second, modernization supported a more educated society (as mentioned above), and thus a more qualified labor-force. The second wave, taking place between the years 1960 and 1970, was labeled as anti-modernization , because it saw the push of innovations of Western society onto developing countries as an exertion of dominance. It refuted

10506-457: Was introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor to encourage production efficiency and productivity. Taylor argues that inefficiencies could be controlled through managing production as a science. Taylor defines scientific management as "concerned with knowing exactly what you want men to do and then see in that they do it in the best and cheapest way." According to Taylor, scientific management affects both workers and employers, and stresses control of

10609-602: Was to be "revolutionary culture" (Chinese: 革命文化 ; pinyin: gémìng wénhuà ). The core concept of the Yan'an Talks was that art should translate the ideas of the Chinese Communist Revolution for rural peasants. In this view, cultural workers and the masses would both serve as teacher and student for each other. This revolutionary style of art would portray the lives of peasants and be directed towards them as an audience. Mao scolded artists for neglecting "The cadres, party workers of all types, fighters in

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