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130-536: The Archipelago was home to the marooned sailor Alexander Selkirk from 1704 to 1709, and is thought to have inspired English novelist Daniel Defoe 's fictional Robinson Crusoe in his 1719 novel about the character (although the novel is explicitly set in the Caribbean , not in the Juan Fernández Islands). This was just one of several survival stories from the period that Defoe would have been aware of. To reflect

260-517: A Gaelic translation for the town's name. The Gaelic Glas could mean grey or green, while chu means dog or hollow. Glaschu probably means "Green Hollow". The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God". The "Dear Green Place" and "City of God" required government troops to put down

390-456: A house of prayer the Devil always builds a chapel there; And 't will be found, upon examination, the latter has the largest congregation." – Defoe's The True-Born Englishman , 1701 After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison . Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer , brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's cooperation as an intelligence agent for

520-443: A life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents. Moll Flanders is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society. Although it

650-667: A more genuine conversion experience. In the opening pages of The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe , the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire , married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of "H. F." in A Journal of the Plague Year retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe's family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence

780-599: A number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law of Subordination Considered (1724) and Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business (1725) and works on the supernatural, like The Political History of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1727) and An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727) and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his most significant work, apart from

910-554: A pioneer of business journalism and economic journalism. Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate , London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux. "De" is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames. His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with

1040-497: A population 2 – 3 million fur seals. The species was hunted to near extinction by the 19th century and was thought to be extinct for 100 years until 200 were found on the island in 1965. Since then, the population has grown steadily at 15% to 20% every year. The Masafuera rayadito is endemic to Alejandro Selkirk and one of the rarest South American birds with only 140 individuals left. The Alejandro Selkirk firecrown, Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi , an endemic subspecies of

1170-506: A problematic notion of becoming a "gentleman." Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders , another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in The Mint , commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader's sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her

1300-473: A secret agent, and to secure acquiescence by using "underhand methods to predispose Scots' opinion in favour of" the Treaty of Union . He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as The Letters of Daniel Defoe (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents. His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against

1430-434: A tradesman's daughter by a nobleman was also common. Overall, Defoe demonstrated a high respect for tradesmen , being one himself. Not only did Defoe elevate individual British tradesmen to the level of gentleman , but he praised the entirety of British trade as a superior system to other systems of trade. Trade, Defoe argues, is a much better catalyst for social and economic change than war. Defoe also argued that through

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1560-465: A valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always kept the last word for himself. He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun , by ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton , the official leader of the various factions opposed to

1690-568: A village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there . He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–103. During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the established Church of England . Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he

1820-524: A week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair. When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the Review to support Godolphin , then again to support Harley and

1950-651: A week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707 . Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as

2080-511: A zone of 60 miles (97 km) around the Pribilof Islands within which the seals were not to be molested at any time, and from 1 May to 31 July each year they were not to be pursued anywhere in the Bering Sea. Only licensed sailing vessels were permitted to engage in fur sealing, and the use of firearms or explosives was prohibited. This marked the first attempt at establishing regulations on

2210-915: Is a source of food for residents of small coastal communities. Meat is sold in the Asian pet food market; in 2004, only Taiwan and South Korea purchased seal meat from Canada. Seal blubber is used to make seal oil, marketed as a fish oil supplement. In 2001, 2% of Canada's raw seal oil was processed and sold in Canadian health stores. There has been virtually no market for seal organs since 1998. In 2005, three companies exported seal skin: Rieber in Norway, Atlantic Marine in Canada and Great Greenland in Greenland. Their clients were earlier French fashion houses and fur makers in Europe, but today

2340-808: Is about twice the 2009 price and about 64% of the 2007 price. The reduced demand is attributable mainly to the 2009 ban on imports of seal products into the European Union. The 2010 winter was unusually warm, with little ice forming in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in February and March, when harp seals give birth to their pups on ice floes. Around the Gulf, harp seals arrived in late winter to give birth on near-shore ice and even on beaches rather than on their usual whelping grounds: sturdy sea ice. Also, seal pups born elsewhere began floating to shore on small, shrinking pieces of ice. Many others stayed too far north, out of reach of all but

2470-629: Is also a prominent rock with a hole through it. Landing is possible near the center of the east shore at Quebrada Sánchez (Sánchez Ravine), and at the foot of Quebrada Las Casas (La Casas Ravine) 33°45′S 80°43′W  /  33.750°S 80.717°W  / -33.750; -80.717 ), where there is a boat slip and buildings of the former penal colony. Anchorage can be taken about 0.3 mi (480 m) east-northeast of Quebrada Sánchez ( 33°43′S 80°44′W  /  33.717°S 80.733°W  / -33.717; -80.733 ), in depths of 40.2 to 49.4 m (132 to 162 ft). The ravine

2600-618: Is far superior. Defoe also implied that trade was the backbone of the British economy : "estate's a pond, but trade's a spring." In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well. Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy. Oftentimes younger members of noble families entered into trade, and marriages to

2730-433: Is higher in the winter months, and varies with elevation and exposure; elevations above 500 m (1,640 ft) experience almost daily rainfall. The Juan Fernández fur seal is known to have existed during the late 17th century on the island with the population of the seals on Alejandro Selkirk Island and Robinson Crusoe Island believed to be in excess of four million by the late 17th century. A census of 1797 estimated

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2860-599: Is illegal in Canada to hunt newborn harp seals ( whitecoats ) and young hooded seals (bluebacks). When the seal pups begin to molt their downy white fur at the age of 12–14 days, they are called " ragged-jacket " and can be commercially hunted. After molting, the seals are called "beaters", named for the way they beat the water with their flippers. The hunt remains highly controversial, attracting significant media coverage and protests each year. Images from past hunts have become iconic symbols for conservation , animal welfare , and animal rights advocates. In 2009, Russia banned

2990-438: Is in a relaxed condition." Reportedly, in one study, three out of eight times, the animal was not rendered either dead or unconscious by shooting, and the hunters would then kill the seal using a hakapik or other club of a type that is sanctioned by the governing authority. Seal skins have been used by aboriginal people for millennia to make waterproof jackets and boots, and seal fur to make fur coats. Pelts account for over half

3120-566: Is recognized by a white patch on a hill near it. Anchorage can also be taken, in depths of 31.1 to 50 m (102 to 164 ft), with sand bottom, off Rada de la Colonia. Alejandro Selkirk Island is the emergent summit of a submarine shield volcano that formed during the Pleistocene epoch. Dating of rocks on the island show that it is the youngest of the Juan Fernández Islands at an age of 1–2 million years old. Due to its young age,

3250-537: Is relating her story. In Defoe's writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well known for his didacticism , with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background). Connected to Defoe's didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography , particularly in Robinson Crusoe . Another common feature of Defoe's fictional works

3380-425: Is that he claimed they were true stories of their subjects. Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names . It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name , with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously. As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over

3510-565: Is the personal or commercial hunting of seals . Seal hunting is currently practiced in nine countries: Canada, Denmark (in self-governing Greenland only), Russia, the United States (above the Arctic Circle in Alaska), Namibia, Estonia, Norway, Finland and Sweden. Most of the world's seal hunting takes place in Canada and Greenland. The Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) regulates

3640-460: Is undersigned by the initials "H. F.", suggesting the author's uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred. Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by

3770-404: Is with a hakapik : a heavy wooden club with a hammer head and metal hook on the end. The hakapik is used because of its efficiency; the animal can be killed quickly without damage to its pelt. The hammer head is used to crush the seals' thin skulls, while the hook is used to move the carcasses. Canadian sealing regulations describe the dimensions of the clubs and the hakapiks , and caliber of

3900-567: The Acts of Union 1707 , dating as far back as 6 December 1604, when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification. This so-called "first draft" for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord. Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehemently in favour of remaining independent from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and no recognition for his services by

4030-516: The Ann . The sealers pursued their trade in a most unsustainable manner, promptly reducing the fur seal population to near extermination. As a result, sealing activities on South Georgia had three marked peaks in 1786–1802, 1814–23, and 1869–1913 respectively, decreasing in between and gradually shifting to elephant seals taken for oil. Following the discovery of the South Shetland Islands in 1819,

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4160-580: The Cambridge History of English Literature , the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe's work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe. Defoe died on 24 April 1731, in Ropemakers Alley, not far from where he was born in Cripplegate, probably while in hiding from his creditors. He

4290-465: The European Commission 's call in 2006 for a ban on the import, export and sale of all harp and hooded seal products. Ringed seals were once the main staple for food, and have been used for clothing, boots, fuel for lamps, as delicacy, containers, igloo windows, and in harnesses for huskies . Though no longer used to this extent, ringed seals are still an important food and clothing source for

4420-666: The Juan Fernández firecrown , became extinct in 1908 due to feral goats and other introduced animals. The island has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of Stejneger's and Juan Fernandez petrels , as well as the Masafuera rayaditos. The flora on the island is in the Fernandezian floristic region , in the Antarctic floristic kingdom , but often also included within

4550-634: The Legion's Memorial to Robert Harley , then Speaker of the House of Commons —and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists . Defoe

4680-650: The Native Americans and First Nations People in Canada have been hunting seals for at least 4,000 years. Traditionally, when an Inuit boy killed his first seal or caribou , a feast was held. The meat was an important source of fat, protein, vitamin A, vitamin B 12 and iron, and the pelts were prized for their warmth. The Inuit diet is rich in fish, whale, and seal. There were approximately 150,000 circumpolar Inuit in 2005 in Greenland, Alaska, Russia, and Canada. According to Kirt Ejesiak, former secretary and chief of staff to then-Premier of Nunavut, Paul Okalik and

4810-511: The Neotropical kingdom . Endemic plant families include Lactoridaceae , with endemic plant genera also found. Throughout much of its history, the island has been uninhabited. There was formerly a penal settlement along the middle of the east coast, at 33°45′49″S 80°45′27″W  /  33.76361°S 80.75750°W  / -33.76361; -80.75750 . About 20 buildings can be made out on detailed satellite images. The settlement

4940-477: The North Pacific Fur Seal Convention severely curtailed the sealing industry. Signed on 7 July 1911, by the United States, Great Britain , Japan and Russia, the treaty was designed to manage the commercial harvest of fur-bearing mammals. It outlawed open-water seal hunting and acknowledged the United States' jurisdiction in managing the on-shore hunting of seals for commercial purposes. It was

5070-516: The Pacific Ocean to become the first ship of any nation to conduct operations in the Southern Ocean . Emilia returned to London on 12 March 1790 with a cargo of 139 tons of sperm oil . By 1784, the British had fifteen ships in the southern fishery, all from London . By 1790 this port alone had sixty vessels employed in the trade. Between 1793 and 1799 there was an average of sixty vessels in

5200-603: The Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne , but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing "Tory" pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view. Not all of Defoe's pamphlet writing was political. One pamphlet was originally published anonymously, entitled A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal

5330-585: The "Canadian Seal Hunt", when in fact seal hunting also happens throughout the year all over the Canadian Arctic. In 2003, the three-year harp seal quota granted by Fisheries and Oceans Canada was increased to a maximum of 975,000 animals per three years, with a maximum of 350,000 animals in any two consecutive years. As of 2012, the population in Canada of the Northwest Atlantic harp seals is approximately 7.3 million animals, over three times what it

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5460-415: The 'landsman seal fishery'. The hunt was mainly for the procurement of seal meat as a form of sustenance for the settlements in the area, rather than for commercial gain. From the early 18th century English hunters began to range further afield – 1723 marked the first time that hunters armed with firearms ventured forth in boats to increase their haul. This soon became a sophisticated commercial operation;

5590-463: The 1830s, and rose to 546,000 annually during the first half of the next decade, which led to a marked decline in the harp seal population that in turn adversely impacted profits in the sealing industry. Four hundred schooners carried 13,000 Newfoundland sealers on the annual hunts of the 1850s. An annual kill of 700,000 was estimated when sealing reached its peak in Newfoundland in the 1860s, with

5720-548: The 2007 quota by 20%, because overflights showed large numbers of seal pups were lost to thin and melting ice. In southern Labrador and off Newfoundland's northeast coast, however, there was extra heavy ice in 2007, and the coast guard estimated as many as 100 vessels were trapped in ice simultaneously. The 2010 hunt was cut short because demand for seal pelts was down. Only one local pelt buyer, NuTan Furs, offered to purchase pelts; and it committed to purchase less than 15,000 pelts. Pelt prices were about C$ 21/pelt in 2010, which

5850-562: The Eastern North Atlantic seal fishery as they replaced the hundreds of smaller sealing vessels owned by merchants in outports around Newfoundland with large and expensive steamships owned by large British and Newfoundland companies based in St. John's. Owned at first by the Scottish firm W. Grieve and Sons, she was acquired in 1880 by R. Steele Junior. Another famous sealing ship of the era

5980-594: The English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament , for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as

6110-660: The French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris. From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman (1726) and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published

6240-596: The Island of South Georgia and the Magellan Strait area as many as 40,000 seal skins and 2,800 tons of elephant seal oil. More fur seals from the island were taken in 1786 by the English sealing vessel Lord Hawkesbury , and by 1791, 102 vessels, manned by 3,000 sealers, were hunting seals south of the equator. The first commercial visit to the South Sandwich Islands was made in 1816 by another English ship,

6370-539: The Next Day after her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury The 8th of September, 1705 . It deals with the interaction between the spiritual realm and the physical realm and was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt 's The Christian Defence against the Fears of Death (1651). It describes Mrs. Bargrave's encounter with her old friend Mrs. Veal after she had died. It is clear from this piece and other writings that

6500-553: The Tories. In exchange for such cooperation with the rival political side, Harley paid some of Defoe's outstanding debts, improving his financial situation considerably. Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703 , which raged through the night of 26/27 November. It caused severe damage to London and Bristol , uprooted millions of trees, and killed more than 8,000 people, mostly at sea. The event became

6630-510: The Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate. In 1709, Defoe authored a lengthy book entitled The History of the Union of Great Britain , an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson . Defoe is cited twice in the book as its author, and gives details of the events leading up to

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6760-502: The Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind", he reported. Defoe reportedly "became fearful of being lynched after a threatening crowd surged up the High Street shouting 'No Union! No English dogs!'" Years later John Clerk of Penicuik , a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that it was not known at the time that Defoe had been sent by Godolphin: … to give a faithful account to him from time to time how everything past here. He

6890-585: The Whitneys of New York also became involved. By 1830, most Pacific seal-stocks had been seriously depleted, and Lloyd's Register of Shipping only showed one full-time sealing vessel on its books. In the North Pacific, the later 1800s saw large harvests of fur seals. These harvests decreased along with fur-seal populations. Growing from the international Grand Banks fishery, the Newfoundland hunt initially used small schooners . Kill rates averaged 451,000 in

7020-541: The adjacent islands, including the Pribilof Islands , the principal breeding-grounds of the seals in those waters. By Acts of Congress , the killing of seals was strictly regulated on the Pribiloff islands and in "the waters adjacent thereto". Beginning in about 1886, it became the practice of certain British and Canadian vessels to intercept passing seals in the open ocean (over three miles from any shore) and shoot them in

7150-467: The animal rights movement upon the culture and economy of the Canadian Inuit" was among the first to reveal how animal rights groups, "well-meaning people in the dominant society through misunderstanding and ignorance can inflict destruction" on a vulnerable minority. Inuit seal hunting accounts for the majority of the seal hunt, but just three percent of the hunt in southern Canada; it is excluded from

7280-423: The attributions of Defoe's novels came long after his death. Notably, Moll Flanders and Roxana were published anonymously for over fifty years until Francis Noble named Daniel Defoe on their title pages in edition publication in 1775 and 1774. Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe's work, without a means to be absolutely certain. In

7410-529: The catch to 400 seals per day, and 2000 per boat total. A 2007 population survey conducted by the DFO estimated the population at 5.5 million. In Greenland, hunting is done with a firearm (rifle or shotgun) and young are fully protected. This has caused some conflicts with other seal-hunting nations, as Greenland also was hit by the boycotts that often were aimed at seals (often young) killed by clubbing or similar methods, which have not been in use in Greenland. It

7540-480: The claim, but was willing to negotiate on the question of international regulation. The issue was taken to arbitration, which concluded in favour of Britain on all points in 1893. Since the decision was in favor of Great Britain, in accordance with the arbitration treaty the tribunal prescribed a series of regulations for preserving the seal herds which were to be binding upon and enforced by both powers. They limited pelagic sealing as to time, place, and manner by fixing

7670-574: The commercial seal hunt dividend contributed about $ 6 million to the Newfoundland GDP, a fraction of the industry's former importance. The end of the 19th century was marked by the Bering Sea Controversy between the United States and Great Britain over the management of fur seal harvests. In 1867 the United States government purchased from Russia all her territorial rights in Alaska and

7800-571: The discharge of the punitive fine. According to legend, the publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health. The truth of this story is questioned by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that "no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men". "Wherever God erects

7930-527: The discovery in 1798-1799 of Bass Strait , between mainland Australia and Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania ) saw the sealers' focus shift there in 1798, when a gang including Daniel Cooper landed from the Nautilus on Cape Barren Island . With Bass Strait over-exploited by 1802, commercial attention returned to southern New Zealand waters, where Stewart Island/Rakiura and Foveaux Strait were explored, exploited and charted from 1803 to 1804. Thereafter,

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8060-402: The east side of the island off which are tremendous depths. The coastal cliffs are up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high. The south, west and north sides of the island have sandy strips of beach which extend 161 m (528 ft) offshore in places. The highest peak, Cerro de Los Inocentes , rises to 1,268 m (4,160 ft) in the southwest part of Alejandro Selkirk Island, where there

8190-460: The expansion of the British Empire and British mercantile influence, Britain would be able to "increase commerce at home" through job creations and increased consumption . He wrote in the work that increased consumption, by laws of supply and demand, increases production and in turn raises wages for the poor therefore lifting part of British society further out of poverty. Published when Defoe

8320-494: The extinction of the harp seal. In 1971, the Canadian government responded by instituting a quota system. The system was competitive, with each boat catching as many seals as it could before the hunt closed, which the Department of Fisheries and Oceans did when they knew that year's quota had been reached. Because it was thought that the competitive element might cause sealers to cut corners, new regulations were introduced that limited

8450-416: The face of total debts that may have amounted to £17,000, was forced to declare bankruptcy. He died with little wealth and evidently embroiled in lawsuits with the royal treasury. Following his release from debtors' prison , he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz , Porto and Lisbon . By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using

8580-401: The family Phocidae were sometimes referred to as hair seals, and are much more adept for a fully aquatic lifestyle than the eared seals, though they have a more difficult time getting around on land. The fur seal yields a valuable fur; the hair seal has no fur, but oil can be obtained from its fat and leather from its hide. Seals have been used for their pelts, their flesh, and their fat, which

8710-574: The first Inuk from Nunavut to attend Harvard, for the c. 46,000 Canadian Inuit, the seal was not "just a source of cash through fur sales, but the keystone of their culture." Although Inuit harvest and hunt many species that inhabit the desert tundra and ice platforms, the seal is their mainstay. The Inuktitut vocabulary designates specific objects made from seal bone, sinew, fat and fur used as tools, games, thread, cords, fuel, clothing, boats, and tents. There are also words referring to seasons, topography, place names, legends, and kinship relationships based on

8840-494: The first commercial expedition to the South Atlantic Ocean in 1776, initially with the primary aim of whaling , although sealing began to play a prominent part in the operation as well. More expeditions were sent in 1777 and 1778 before political and economic troubles hampered the trade for some time. On 1 September 1788, the 270-ton ship Emilia , owned by Samuel Enderby & Sons and commanded by Captain James Shields, departed London. The ship went west around Cape Horn into

8970-514: The first international treaty to address wildlife preservation issues. The treaty was dissolved with the onset of hostilities between the signatories in World War II. However, the treaty set precedent for future national and international laws and treaties, including the Fur Seal Act of 1966 and the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 . Today, commercial sealing is conducted by only five nations: Canada, Greenland, Namibia, Norway, and Russia. The United States, which had been heavily involved in

9100-428: The fur is mainly exported to Russia and China. In Canada, the season for the commercial hunt of harp seal is from 15 November to 15 May. While Inuit hunt seals commercially year-round, most sealing in southern Canada occurs in late March in the Gulf of St. Lawrence , and during the first or second week of April off Newfoundland, in an area known as the Front. This peak spring period is often mistakenly referred to as

9230-409: The geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience. Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720) is set during the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War . A Journal of the Plague Year , published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which

9360-452: The government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain , published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was "not the case, but rather the contrary". Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as

9490-526: The hunting of harp seals less than one year old. The term seal is used to refer to a diverse group of animals. In science, they are grouped together in the Pinnipeds , which also includes the walrus , not popularly thought of as a seal, and not considered here. The two main families of seals are the Otariidae (the eared seals; includes sea lions , and fur seals ), and Phocidae (the earless seals); animals in

9620-483: The ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys . Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1689, and Defoe became one of William's close allies and a secret agent. Some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe. In 1692, he was arrested for debts of £700 and, in

9750-537: The information in these books was gathered. Defoe went to school in Newington Green with a friend named Caruso. The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk , who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands , but his experience is inconsistent with the details of the narrative. The island Selkirk lived on, Más a Tierra (Closer to Land)

9880-530: The introduction of more powerful and reliable steamships that were capable of much larger range and storing capacity. Annual catches exceeded the 400,000 mark from the 1870s and smaller sealers were steadily pushed out of the market. The first modern sealing ship was the SS Bear , built in Dundee , Scotland in 1874 as a steamer for sealing . The ship was custom-built for sealing out of St. John's, Newfoundland , and

10010-519: The island shows little evidence of erosion . According to some early reports, now disputed, about 59 km (32 nmi) southwest of the island is the submerged Sefton Reef ( 36°43′S 83°15′W  /  36.717°S 83.250°W  / -36.717; -83.250 ), almost reaching sea level, and 47 km (25 nmi) to northwest, Yosemite Rock ( 32°04′S 83°14′W  /  32.067°S 83.233°W  / -32.067; -83.233 ). Podesta Island , once reported to lie farther to

10140-622: The late 19th century, the sealing industry in Newfoundland was second in importance only to cod fishing . The seal hunt provided critical winter wages for fishermen, but was dangerous work marked by sealing disasters that claimed hundreds of lives, such as the 1914 Newfoundland Sealing Disaster involving the SS ; Southern Cross , the SS  Newfoundland , and SS Stephano . The rugged hulls and experienced crews of Newfoundland sealing vessels often led sealers such as Bear and Terra Nova to be hired for Arctic exploration and one sealer Algerine

10270-512: The life of Hai ebn Yokdhan . Defoe's next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy . The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of

10400-471: The literary lore associated with the island and attract tourists, the Chilean government renamed the place Alejandro Selkirk Island in 1966. The island measures 11 km (7 mi) north–south and 6 km (4 mi) east–west, and has an area of 49.5 km (19.1 sq mi). It is densely wooded and very mountainous and is marked by ridges and numerous deep ravines lead to a steep, rugged coast on

10530-503: The markets of Seville . Newfoundland and Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence were the first regions to experience large scale sealing. Migratory fishermen began the hunting from as early as the 1500s. Large-scale commercial seal hunting became an annual event starting in 1723 and expanded rapidly near the turn of the 18th century. Initially, the method used was to ensnare the migrating seals in nets anchored to shore installations , known as

10660-409: The most determined hunters. Environment Canada, the weather forecasting agency, reported the ice was at the lowest level on record. The Fisheries Act established "Seal Protection Regulations" in the mid-1960s. The regulations were combined with other Canadian marine mammals regulations in 1993, to form the " Marine Mammal Regulations ". In addition to describing the use of the rifle and hakapik ,

10790-456: The name "Defoe" and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary nearby. As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes. Defoe's first notable publication

10920-539: The novels, is A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution . Published in 1726, The Complete English Tradesman is an example of Defoe's political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade

11050-518: The people of Nunavut . Called nayiq by the Central Alaskan Yup'ik people , the ringed seal is also hunted and eaten in Alaska . Various seal species were also hunted in northwest Europe and the Baltic Sea at least 8,000 years ago. The first commercial hunting of seals by Europeans, is said to have occurred in 1515, when a cargo of fur seal skins from Uruguay was sent to Spain for sale in

11180-747: The political portion of Defoe's life was by no means his only focus. In despair during his imprisonment for the seditious libel case, Defoe wrote to William Paterson , the London Scot and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme , who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer , leading minister and spymaster in the English government . Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in 1703. He immediately published The Review , which appeared weekly, then three times

11310-556: The principal market for seal meat exports. One of Canada's market access priorities for 2002 was to "continue to press Korean authorities to obtain the necessary approvals for the sale of seal meat for human consumption in Korea." Canadian and Korean officials agreed in 2003 on specific Korean import requirements for seal meat. For 2004, only Taiwan and South Korea purchased seal meat from Canada. Canadian seal product exports reached C$ 18 million in 2006. Of this, C$ 5.4 million went to

11440-547: The processed value of a seal, selling at over C$ 100 each as of 2006. According to Paul Christian Rieber , of GC Rieber AS , the difficult ice conditions and low quotas in 2006 resulted in reduced access to seal pelts, which caused the commodity price to be pushed up. One high-end fashion designer, Donatella Versace , has begun to use seal pelts, while others, such as Calvin Klein , Stella McCartney , Tommy Hilfiger , and Ralph Lauren , refrain from using any kind of fur. Seal meat

11570-577: The publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in Harley's Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include The Family Instructor (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager ,

11700-562: The quotas: 82,800 in 2007; 217,800 in 2008; 72,400 in 2009; and 67,000 in 2010. In 2007, Norway reported that 29,000 harp seals were killed, Russia reported that 5,479 seals were killed and Greenland reported that 90,000 seals were killed in their respective seal hunts. Harp seal populations in the northwest Atlantic declined to approximately 2 million in the late 1960s as a result of Canada's annual kill rates, which averaged to over 291,000 from 1952 to 1970. Conservationists demanded reduced rates of killing and stronger regulations to avert

11830-410: The regulations state every person "who fishes for seals for personal or commercial use shall land the pelt or the carcass of the seal." The commercial hunting of infant harp seals ( whitecoats ) and infant hooded seals (bluebacks) was banned in 1987 under pressure from animal rights groups. Now, seals may only be killed once they have started molting (from 12 to 15 days of age), as this coincides with

11960-407: The rifles and minimum bullet velocity, that can be used. They state: "Every person who strikes a seal with a club or hakapik shall strike the seal on the forehead until its skull has been crushed", and that "No person shall commence to skin or bleed a seal until the seal is dead", which occurs when it "has a glassy-eyed, staring appearance and exhibits no blinking reflex when its eye is touched while it

12090-406: The rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against". The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to

12220-484: The seal hunt in Canada. It sets quotas (total allowable catch – TAC), monitors the hunt, studies the seal population, works with the Canadian Sealers' Association to train sealers on new regulations, and promotes sealing through its website and spokespeople. The DFO set harvest quotas of over 90,000 seals in 2007; 275,000 in 2008; 280,000 in 2009; and 330,000 in 2010. The actual kills in recent years have been less than

12350-515: The seal. One region of Canada's north is inhabited by the Netsilingmiut , or "people of the seal." The title of Ejesiak's article acknowledged the pivotal 1991 publication entitled Animal Rights, Human Rights by George Wenzel, a McGill University geographer and anthropologist who worked more than two decades with the Clyde Inuit of Baffin Island. Wenzel's "scholarly examination" of "the impact of

12480-892: The sealing grounds were expanded to what is now the Antarctic Treaty area. Commercial sealing in the Australasian region appears to have started with the London-based Massachusetts-born Eber Bunker , master of the William and Ann , who in November 1791 announced his intention to visit and hunt in New Zealand 's Dusky Sound . Captain William Raven of the Britannia stationed a party at Dusky from 1792 to 1793, but

12610-481: The sealing industry for environmental purposes. However, these regulations failed because the mother seals fed outside the protected area and remained vulnerable. A joint commission of scientists from Britain and the United States further considered the problem, and came to the conclusion that pelagic sealing needed to be curtailed. However, further joint tribunals did not enact new legal restrictions and, at this point, Japan also embarked upon pelagic sealing. Finally,

12740-401: The sealing industry that is [published] by international animal rights organizations". Warm winters in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence have led to thinner and more unstable ice there. In 2007, Canada's federal fisheries ministry reported that while the pups are born on the ice as usual, the ice floes have started to break up before the pups learn to swim, causing the pups to drown. Canada reduced

12870-554: The sealing industry, now maintains a complete ban on the commercial hunting of marine mammals, with the exception of indigenous peoples who are allowed to hunt a small number of seals each year. In the Canadian commercial seal hunt, the majority of the hunters initiate the kill using a firearm. Ninety percent of sealers on the ice floes of the Front (east of Newfoundland), where the majority of non-native seal hunting occurs, use firearms. An older and more traditional method of killing seals

13000-589: The sealing-industry focus shifted to the sub-Antarctic Antipodes Islands , 1805–1807, the Auckland Islands from 1806, the southeast coast of New Zealand's South Island , Otago Harbour and Solander Island by 1809, before focusing further to the south at the newly-discovered Campbell Island (discovered in January 1810) and Macquarie Island (discovered in July 1810) from 1810. During this period sealers were active on

13130-511: The seals were transported back to England, where the seal's meat, fur, and oil were sold separately. From 1749, the import of seal oil to England was being recorded annually, and was used as lighting oil, for cooking, in the manufacture of soap and for the treating of leather . It was in the South Seas that sealing became a major enterprise from the late 18th century. Samuel Enderby , along with Alexander Champion and John St Barbe organized

13260-873: The southern coast of mainland Australia, for example at Kangaroo Island . This whole development has been called the first sealing boom; it sparked the Sealers' War (1810–1821) in southern New Zealand. Australasian sealing measured its output in terms of skins. By about 1815, sealing in the Pacific had faded in importance. A brief revival occurred from 1823, but this proved very short-lived. Although highly profitable at times and affording New South Wales one of its earliest trade staples, sealing's unregulated character saw its self-destruction. Notable traders from Britain and based in Australia included Simeon Lord , Henry Kable , James Underwood and Robert Campbell . Plummers of London and

13390-624: The subject of Defoe's The Storm (1704), which includes a collection of witness accounts of the tempest. Many regard it as one of the world's first examples of modern journalism. In the same year, he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France , which supported the Harley Ministry , chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three times

13520-666: The summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely. His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of probable Flemish descent, and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers . In Defoe's early childhood, he lived through several significant historical events: in 1665, seventy thousand were killed by the Great Plague of London , and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe's and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood. In 1667, when he

13650-509: The time when they are abandoned by their mothers. Canada's biggest market for seal pelts is Norway. Carino Limited is one of Newfoundland's largest seal pelt producers. Carino (CAnada–RIeber–NOrway) is marketing its seal pelts mainly through its parent company, GC Rieber Skinn , Bergen, Norway . Canada sold pelts to eleven countries in 2004. The next largest were Germany, Greenland, and China/ Hong Kong . Other importers were Finland, Denmark, France, Greece, South Korea, and Russia. Asia remains

13780-653: The trade. The average increased to seventy-two in the years between 1800 and 1809. The sealing industry extended further south to the South Georgia island , first mapped by Captain James Cook in HMS ; Resolution on 17 January 1775. During the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century, South Georgia was inhabited by English and Yankee sealers, who used to live there for considerable periods of time and sometimes overwintered. In 1778, English sealers brought back from

13910-664: The water (pelagic sealing). In the summer of 1886, three British Columbian sealers, the Carolena , the Onward , and Thornton , were captured by an American revenue cutter, the Corwin . The United States claimed exclusive jurisdiction over the sealing industry in the Bering Sea ; it also contended that the protection of the fur seal was an international duty, and should be secured by international arrangement. The British imperial government repudiated

14040-479: The west, is a phantom island . Alejandro Selkirk has a subtropical climate, moderated by the cold Humboldt Current and the southeast trade winds . Temperatures range from 3 °C (37 °F) to 34 °C (93 °F), with an annual mean of 15.4 °C (59.7 °F). Higher elevations are generally cooler. Average annual precipitation is 1,081 mm (42.6 in), varying from 318 mm (12.5 in) to 1,698 mm (66.9 in) year to year. Rainfall

14170-494: The years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name "the author of the True-Born Englishman," there would be about 75 works that could be attributed to him. Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers

14300-576: Was An Essay Upon Projects , a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally. In 1701, Defoe presented

14430-437: Was a Scottish sailor who was marooned as a castaway on Más a Tierra (then uninhabited) from 1704 to 1709. His story of survival likely inspired the 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe . 33°45′04″S 80°47′00″W  /  33.75111°S 80.78333°W  / -33.75111; -80.78333 Daniel Defoe Daniel Defoe ( / d ɪ ˈ f oʊ / ; born Daniel Foe ; c. 1660 – 24 April 1731)

14560-710: Was a natural target, and his pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, principally on account of his December 1702 pamphlet entitled The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church , purporting to argue for their extermination. In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney . It

14690-475: Was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate . She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children. In 1685, Defoe joined

14820-533: Was an English novelist, journalist, merchant, pamphleteer and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe , published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations. He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel , and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson . Defoe wrote many political tracts,

14950-408: Was hired to recover Titanic bodies in 1912. Following World War I aircraft were used to find where the herds of seals had gathered on ice sheets. After World War II , the Newfoundland hunt was dominated by large Norwegian sealing vessels until the late 20th century, when the much diminished hunt shifted to smaller motor fishing vessels, based from outports around Newfoundland and Labrador. In 2007,

15080-435: Was in his late fifties, Robinson Crusoe relates the story of a man's shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe's struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following

15210-437: Was in the 1970s. Although around 70% of Canadian seals killed are taken on the Front, private monitors focus on the St. Lawrence hunt, because of its more convenient location. The 2006 St. Lawrence leg of the hunt was officially closed on 3 April 2006; sealers had already exceeded the quota by 1,000 animals. On 26 March 2007, the Newfoundland and Labrador government launched a seal hunt website to counter "misinformation about

15340-407: Was not intended as a work of erotica , later generations came to view it as such. Defoe's final novel, Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she

15470-636: Was often in debtors' prison. The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke. He was interred in Bunhill Fields (today Bunhill Fields Burial and Gardens), just outside the medieval boundaries of the City of London, in what is now the Borough of Islington , where a monument was erected to his memory in 1870. A street in the Bronx , New York is named in his honour (De Foe Place). Seal hunting Seal hunting , or sealing ,

15600-399: Was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him. Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works —books, pamphlets, and journals—on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural. He was also

15730-423: Was often used as lamp fuel , lubricants , cooking oil , a constituent of soap, the liquid base for red ochre paint, and for processing materials such as leather and jute . Pinseal was fashioned into handbags , and seal livers were an early source of insulin . Early commercial sealers discarded most of the flesh, but might save seal hearts and flippers for an evening meal. Archeological evidence indicates

15860-493: Was operative from 1909. It initially housed 190 criminals, while there were as many as 160 political prisoners from 1927 to 1930. The penal colony was abandoned in 1930. Recently, the island has seen regular settlement, with 57 people living on the island as of the 2012 census. In 1966 the Chilean government renamed Isla Más Afuera as Alejandro Selkirk Island, with Isla Más a Tierra becoming Robinson Crusoe Island. Alexander Selkirk

15990-765: Was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway . His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten. Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher's boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking , Surrey. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters , and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton 's dissenting academy at Newington Green , then

16120-495: Was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested. He was charged with seditious libel and found guilty in a trial at the Old Bailey in front of the notoriously sadistic judge Salathiel Lovell . Lovell sentenced him to a punitive fine of 200 marks (£336 then, £71,883 in 2024 ), to public humiliation in a pillory , and to an indeterminate length of imprisonment which would only end upon

16250-473: Was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966. It has also been supposed that Defoe may have also been inspired by a translation of a book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail , who was known as "Abubacer" in Europe. The Latin edition was entitled Philosophus Autodidactus ; Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled The improvement of human reason, exhibited in

16380-569: Was the Terra Nova , originally built in 1884 for the Dundee whaling and sealing fleet. She was ideally suited to the polar regions and worked for 10 years in the annual seal fishery in the Labrador Sea . Large and expensive ships required major capital investments from British and Newfoundland firms, and shifted the industry from merchants in small outports to companies based in St. John's, Newfoundland. By

16510-463: Was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe. In History of the Union , he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as "Books which are supposed to be De Foe's." Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe. Many of

16640-533: Was the most outstanding sealing vessel of her day and the lead ship in a new generation of sealers. Heavy-built with 15-centimetre-thick (6-inch) wooden planks, Bear was rigged as a sailing barquentine but her main power was a steam engine designed to smash deep into ice packs to reach seal herds. At the time of her arrival in St. John's, there were 300 vessels outfitted each season to hunt seals, but most were small schooners or old sailing barques . The new sealing ships represented by Bear radically transformed

16770-473: Was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported, Having had the honour to be always sent for the committee to whom these amendments were referrèd, I have had the good fortune to break their measures in two particulars via the bounty on Corn and proportion of the Excise. For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring

16900-616: Was therefor a spy among us, but not known to be such, otherways the Mob of Edin. had pull him to pieces. Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland . He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly" but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England". He

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