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114-593: The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the migration of members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) to Salt Lake City , Utah , who used handcarts to transport their belongings. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and continued until 1860. Motivated to join their fellow church members in Utah, but lacking funds for full teams of oxen or horses , nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England , Wales , Scotland and Scandinavia made

228-458: A "cold-blooded, scheming, blasphemous policy". Most survivors refused to blame anyone. One traveler, Francis Webster, said it was a privilege to be part of the Martin company. One survivor, John Chislett, wrote bitterly of Richards's promise that "we should get to Zion in safety." American West historian, Wallace Stegner , described the inadequate planning and improvident decisions of leadership caused

342-429: A "push factor" or determinant/trigger factor, such examples being: poor quality of life, lack of jobs, excessive pollution, hunger, drought or natural disasters. Such conditions represent decisive reasons for voluntary migration, the population preferring to migrate in order to prevent financially unfavorable situations or even emotional and physical suffering. There are contested definitions of forced migration. However,

456-596: A concert opera called "1856: Long Walk Home.". A musical called 1856 , produced by Cory Ellsworth, a descendant of Edmund Ellsworth , was performed in Mesa , Arizona and Salt Lake City in July 2006. Filmmaker Lee Groberg and historian Heidi Swinton created a documentary for PBS called Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie & Martin Handcart Story and first broadcast on December 18, 2006. Human migration Human migration

570-432: A country, either seasonal human migration (mainly related to agriculture and tourism to urban places), or shifts of the population into cities ( urbanisation ) or out of cities ( suburbanisation ). However, studies of worldwide migration patterns tend to limit their scope to international migration . of the world's population Almost half of these migrants are women, one of the most significant migrant-pattern changes in

684-506: A creation of the human struggle to obtain food, sex and security. To produce food, security and reproduction, human beings must, out of necessity, move out of their usual habitation and enter into indispensable social relationships that are cooperative or antagonistic. Human beings also develop the tools and equipment to interact with nature to produce the desired food and security. The improved relationship (cooperative relationships) among human beings and improved technology further conditioned by

798-559: A decline in US interstate migration from 1991 to 2011, theorising that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity of occupations and an increase in workers' ability to learn about other locations before moving there, through both information technology and inexpensive travel. Other researchers find that the location-specific nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labour reallocation. Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of

912-430: A global perspective. It explains that interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change. Trade with one country, which causes an economic decline in another, may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy. It can be argued that even after decolonisation, the economic dependence of former colonies remains on mother countries. However, this view of international trade

1026-450: A lower skill premium. The relative skill premia define migrants selectivity. Age heaping techniques display one method to measure the relative skill premium of a country. A number of theories attempt to explain the international flow of capital and people from one country to another. Recent academic output on migration comprises mainly journal articles. The long-term trend shows a gradual increase in academic publishing on migration, which

1140-437: A major role. In North Africa, for example, emigrating to Europe counts as a sign of social prestige. Moreover, many countries were former colonies . This means that many have relatives who live legally in the (former) colonial metro pole and who often provide important help for immigrants arriving in that metropole. Relatives may help with job research and with accommodation. The geographical proximity of Africa to Europe and

1254-552: A mixed company of aged people, women, and little children, so late in the season without much suffering, sickness, and death." All of the other church elders argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention . Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued

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1368-483: A natural disaster or civil disturbance) may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons . People who flee to a different country due to political, religious, or other types of persecution in their home country can formally request shelter in the host country. These people are commonly referred to as asylum seekers . If the application is approved, their legal classification changes to that of refugees . Depending on

1482-530: A new environment. Immigrants leave their beloved homes to seek a life in camps, spontaneous settlement, and countries of asylum. By the end of 2018, there were an estimated 67.2 million forced migrants globally – 25.9 million refugees displaced from their countries, and 41.3 million internally displaced persons that had been displaced within their countries for different reasons. In 2022, 6 million Ukrainian people fled their country; meanwhile, 3 million Syrian people fled in 3 years. Transit migration

1596-624: A poor harvest in Utah, Young began to use handcarts because the church members who remained in Europe were mostly poor. Young also believed it would speed the emigrants' journey. Young proposed the plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards , president of the European Mission , in September 1855. Young's letter and an editorial endorsing Young's plan by Richards was published in the Millennial Star ,

1710-480: A possible second move. It has a high potential to improve human development, and some studies confirm that migration is the most direct route out of poverty. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups . There are four major forms of migration: invasion , conquest , colonization and emigration / immigration . People moving from their home due to forced displacement (such as

1824-511: A result of conflict, of human-rights violations , of violence, or to escape persecution. In 2014, the UN Refugee agency estimated that around 59.5 million people fell into this category. Other reasons people may move include to gain access to opportunities and services or to escape extreme weather. This type of movement, usually from rural to urban areas, may be classed as internal migration . Sociology-cultural and ego-historical factors also play

1938-606: A shortage of labour but an excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas with a high labour supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage. Labour tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of labour comes changes in the sending and the receiving country. Neoclassical economic theory best describes transnational migration because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations. Dual labour market theory states that pull factors in more developed countries mainly cause migration. This theory assumes that

2052-526: A strategic advantage. According to the Centre for Global Development , opening all borders could add $ 78 trillion to the world GDP . Remittances (funds transferred by migrant workers to their home country) form a substantial part of the economy of some countries. The top ten remittance recipients in 2018. In addition to economic impacts, migrants also make substantial contributions in sociocultural and civic-political life. Sociocultural contributions occur in

2166-471: A stronger conceptualisation of how migrants affect socio-political processes in their countries of origin. Much work also takes place in the field of integration of migrants into destination-societies. Political scientists have put forth a number of theoretical frameworks relating to migration, offering different perspectives on processes of security , citizenship , and international relations . The political importance of diasporas has also become in

2280-616: A survivor, wrote, "Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death." Although only about 5 percent of the 1846–1868 Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day , church pageants, and similar commemorations. The Latter Day Saints were first organized in 1830. Early members of

2394-476: Is a highly debated term with no official definition. The common understanding is that it describes immigrants who are in the process of moving to an end goal country. The term was first coined by the UN in 1990 to describe immigrants who were traveling through countries surrounding Europe to end up in a European Union state. Another example of transit migrants is Central Americans who travel through Mexico in order to live in

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2508-494: Is affected by, matters of race and ethnicity , as well as social structure . They have produced three main sociological perspectives: In the 21st century, as attention has shifted away from countries of destination, sociologists have attempted to understand how transnationalism allows us to understand the interplay between migrants, their countries of destination, and their countries of origins. In this framework, work on social remittances by Peggy Levitt and others has led to

2622-565: Is another milestone, as the first internationally negotiated statement of objectives for migration governance striking a balance between migrants' rights and the principle of States' sovereignty over their territory. Although it is not legally binding, the Global Compact for Migration was adopted by consensus in December 2018 at a United Nations conference in which more than 150 United Nations Member States participated and, later that same month, in

2736-405: Is characterised by the speedy evolution and the emergence of new sub-determinants, notably earning, unemployment, networks, and migration policies. Osmosis theory explains analogically human migration by the biophysical phenomenon of osmosis . In this respect, the countries are represented by animal cells , the borders by the semipermeable membranes and the humans by ions of water. According to

2850-612: Is controversial, and some argue that free trade can reduce migration between developing and developed countries. It can be argued that the developed countries import labour-intensive goods, which causes an increase in the employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers. Exporting capital-intensive goods from rich countries to developing countries also equalises income and employment conditions, thus slowing migration. In either direction, this theory can be used to explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart. Based on

2964-495: Is likely to be related to the general expansion of academic literature production, and the increased prominence of migration research. Migration and its research have further changed with the revolution in information and communication technologies. This migration theory states that the main reason for labour migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to geographic labour demand and supply . It can be said that areas with

3078-531: Is not clear (illogical or biased) why it is only migrants in non-EU countries that are labeled as transit migrants. It is also argued that the term "transit" glosses over the complexity and difficulty of migrant journeys: migrants face many types of violence while in transit; migrants often have no set end destination and must adjust their plan as they move (migrant journeys can take years and go through several stages). Numerous causes impel migrants to move to another country. For instance, globalization has increased

3192-432: Is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion from a household that has insufficient income. In this case, the household needs extra capital that can be achieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate in migrant labour abroad. These remittances can also have a broader effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole as they bring in capital. Recent research has examined

3306-733: Is the most widely understood, as anyone changing their geographical location permanently is a migrant. In contrast, refugees are defined and described as persons who do not willingly relocate. The reasons for the refugees' migration usually involve war actions within the country or other forms of oppression, coming either from the government or non-governmental sources. Refugees are usually associated with people who must unwillingly relocate as fast as possible; hence, such migrants will likely relocate undocumented. Asylum seekers are associated with persons who also leave their country unwillingly, yet, who also do not do so under oppressing circumstances such as war or death threats. The motivation to leave

3420-512: Is the movement of people from one place to another, with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region). The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another (external migration), but internal migration (within a single country) is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks, facilitating

3534-493: Is usually divided into voluntary migration and forced migration . The distinction between involuntary (fleeing political conflict or natural disaster) and voluntary migration (economic or labour migration ) is difficult to make and partially subjective, as the motivators for migration are often correlated. The World Bank estimated that, as of 2010, 16.3 million or 7.6% of migrants qualified as refugees. This number grew to 19.5 million by 2014 (comprising approximately 7.9% of

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3648-701: The World Migration Report since 1999. The United Nations Statistics Division also keeps a database on worldwide migration. Recent advances in research on migration via the Internet promise better understanding of migration patterns and migration motives. Structurally, there is substantial South–South and North–North migration; in 2013, 38% of all migrants had migrated from developing countries to other developing countries, while 23% had migrated from high-income OECD countries to other high-income countries. The United Nations Population Fund says that "while

3762-534: The Green River . Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions arrived to be distributed to the emigrants. The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey proved to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life. The outbreak of the American Civil War likely hastened

3876-530: The Migration and Remittances Factbook also gives statistics for top immigration destination countries and top emigration origin countries according to percentage of the population; the countries that appear at the top of those rankings are entirely different from the ones in the above rankings and tend to be much smaller countries. As of 2013, the top 15 migration corridors (accounting for at least two million migrants each) were: The impacts of human migration on

3990-724: The Millennial Star was published in Manchester, England , in May 1840, with Latter Day Saint Apostle Parley P. Pratt as editor and W. R. Thomas as printer. First mention of the newspaper being sold in Liverpool appeared in March 1842, and printing was officially moved to Liverpool with the April 1842 issue. Pratt was eventually replaced as editor by Thomas Ward. When Ward left England, Orson Hyde , who

4104-577: The Missouri River , they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence, Nebraska for repairs, before beginning the remaining 1,030-mile (1,660 km) journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City. Initial problems with the carts occurred because the wood used to construct them was said to have been "green timber" , or wood from trees that were recently chopped down and not given sufficient time to dry, causing an increase in breakdowns. When

4218-533: The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), by a vote among the Member States of 152 to 5 (with 12 abstentions). Colonialism and colonization opens up distant territories and their people to migration, having dominated what is identified as modern migration . Colonialism globalized systems of migration and established ties effective until today. Millennial Star The first issue of

4332-456: The history of human migration osmosis theory studies the evolution of its natural determinants. In this theory migration is divided into two main types: simple and complicated. The simple migration is divided, in its turn, into diffusion, stabilisation and concentration periods. During these periods, water availability, adequate climate, security and population density represent the natural determinants of human migration. The complicated migration

4446-520: The world economy have been largely positive. In 2015, migrants, who constituted 3.3% of the world population , contributed 9.4% of global GDP. At a microeconomic level, the value of a human mobility is largely recognized by firms. A 2021 survey by the Boston Consulting Group found that 72% of 850+ executives across several countries and industries believed that migration benefited their countries, and 45% considered globally diverse employees

4560-510: The 21st century a growing field of interest, as scholars examine questions of diaspora activism , state-diaspora relations, out-of-country voting processes, and states' soft power strategies. In this field, the majority of work has focused on immigration politics, viewing migration from the perspective of the country of destination. With regard to emigration processes, political scientists have expanded on Albert Hirschman's framework on '"voice" vs. "exit" to discuss how emigration affects

4674-591: The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, which still has no traditional countries of destination among its States parties. Beyond this, there have been numerous multilateral and global initiatives, dialogues and processes on migration over several decades. The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (Global Compact for Migration)

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4788-554: The Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies, and they helped them on to Devil's Gate . George D. Grant, who headed the rescue party, reported to Young: It is not of much use for me to attempt to give a description of the situation of these people, for this you will learn from [others]; but you can imagine between five and six hundred men, women and children, worn down by drawing hand carts through snow and mud; fainting by

4902-538: The Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the company had died during the journey. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite. Residents of Utah allowed the companies to stay in their homes during the winter. The emigrants would eventually go to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West. As early as November 2, 1856, while

5016-454: The Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company. On November 18, the backup party met the Martin Company with the supplies so they could continue the journey. The 104 wagons carrying

5130-403: The Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group, led by Jones, remained at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. The severe weather forced the Martin Company to halt for five days; the company moved into Martin's Cove , a few miles west of Devil's Gate, as it was much more protected than the open plains to the east. During this season,

5244-416: The Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party consisting of Joseph Young , Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones was sent forward. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for nine days until the three scouts arrived on October 28; 56 members of the company had died while they waited. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. During this interval,

5358-506: The Mormon people. Wallace Stegner said the handcart pioneers were one of the greatest stories of the American West. Reenactments , in which a group dressed in 19th-century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts, have become a popular activity among LDS wards , youth groups, and families. The first known modern-era reenactment took place in 1966 from Henefer, Utah , to

5472-500: The North has experienced a higher absolute increase in the migrant stock since 2000 (32 million) compared to the South (25 million), the South recorded a higher growth rate. Between 2000 and 2013, the average annual rate of change of the migrant population in developing regions (2.3%) slightly exceeded that of the developed regions (2.1%)." Substantial internal migration can also take place within

5586-597: The Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with Brigham Young and other church leaders. The next morning the church held a general conference , where Young and the other speakers called on church members to provide wagons, mules , supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7, the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagon-loads of food and supplies, pulled by four-mule teams with 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by

5700-547: The United States. The term "transit migration" has generated a lot of debate among migration scholars and immigration institutions. Some criticize it as a Eurocentric term that was coined to place responsibility of migrants on states outside the European Union; and also to pressure those states to prevent migration onward to the European Union. Scholars note that EU countries also have identical migrant flows and therefore it

5814-519: The Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate if they should continue the journey immediately or wait for the spring. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage , urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. He warned them that they could not travel "with

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5928-465: The Willie Company faced the most difficult section of the trail—the ascent up Rocky Ridge. The climb took place during a howling snowstorm through knee-deep snow. That night 13 emigrants died. On October 19, the Martin Company was about 110 miles (180 km) further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming . Shortly after completing the crossing,

6042-492: The Willie and Martin companies were still making their way to safety, Young responded to criticism of his own leadership by rebuking Franklin Richards and Daniel Spencer for allowing the companies to leave so late. Many authors argued that Young, as author of the plan, was responsible. Ann Eliza Young , daughter of one of the men in charge of building the carts and a former plural wife of Brigham Young, described her ex-husband's plan as

6156-437: The axles at the shoulder. All kinds of expedients were resorted to as remedies for the growing evil, but with variable success. Some wrapped their axles with leather obtained from bootlegs; others with tin, obtained by sacrificing tin-plates, kettles, or buckets from their mess outfit. Besides these inconveniences, there was felt a great lack of a proper lubricator. Of anything suitable for this purpose we had none at all. Prior to

6270-462: The bed were seven-foot (2.1 m) pull shafts ending with a three-foot (0.9 m) crossbar at the front. The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled. Cargo was carried in a box about three feet by four feet (0.9 m by 1.2 m), with 8 inches (0.20 m) walls. The handcarts generally carried up to 250 pounds (110 kg) of supplies and luggage, though they were capable of handling loads as heavy as 500 pounds (230 kg). Carts used in

6384-415: The blizzard struck. Many members of the company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile, the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate , where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found

6498-416: The carts and outfitting the companies. When the companies reached Florence, additional time was lost making repairs to the poorly built carts. Emigrant John Chislett describes the problems with the carts: The axles and boxes being of wood, and being ground out by the dust that found its way there in spite of our efforts to keep it out, together with the extra weight put on the carts, had the effect of breaking

6612-512: The church often encountered hostility, primarily due to their practice of withdrawing from secular society and gathering in locales to practice their religious beliefs. Neighbors who were not Mormon felt threatened by the church's rapid growth in numbers, its tendency to vote as a bloc and acquire political power, its claims of divine favor, and the practice of polygamy . Violence against the church and its members caused most church members to move from Ohio to Missouri , then to Illinois . Despite

6726-475: The church prevented European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants could travel by rail to Saint Joseph , Missouri, after which they went by riverboat to Florence, where they were outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously low, so they cut back on rations. The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached

6840-500: The church's First Presidency had consistently pointed out that departure from what is now Omaha, Nebraska, needed to happen by the end of May to safely make the journey. The church enacted many changes following the journeys of the Willie and Martin companies. Handcart companies were not to depart Florence after July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs, and they would be regularly greased. Arrangements were made to replenish supplies along

6954-447: The church's mission president , passed the emigrant companies. Richards counseled the emigrants to be faithful and obedient to their leaders, and promised that the Lord would open a way for them to "get to Zion in safety." Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for

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7068-608: The church's England-based periodical, on December 22, 1855. The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced by one-third. Poor church members who wanted to emigrate responded enthusiastically to the new plan—in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2,012 European emigrants, compared with 1,161 the year before. Emigrants departed from an English port (generally Liverpool ) and travelled by ship to New York or Boston . The emigrants who arrived from 1855 to 1857 traveled by railroad to Iowa City, Iowa ,

7182-553: The church's practice of polygamy . From 1849 to 1855, about 16,000 European Latter-day Saints traveled to the United States by ship, through the eastern states by rail, and to Utah by ox and wagon. Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses, the church established the Perpetual Emigrating Fund to provide financial assistance for poor emigrants to trek west, which they would repay as they were able. When contributions and loan repayments decreased in 1855 after

7296-449: The commute is also not regarded as migration, in the absence of an intention to live and settle in the visited places. There exist many statistical estimates of worldwide migration patterns. The World Bank has published three editions of its Migration and Remittances Factbook , beginning in 2008, with a second edition appearing in 2011 and a third in 2016. The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) has published ten editions of

7410-424: The company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening, the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company. On October 23, the second day after the main rescue party had arrived,

7524-503: The country for asylum seekers might involve an unstable economic or political situation or high rates of crime . Thus, asylum seekers relocate predominantly to escape the degradation of the quality of their lives . Nomadic movements usually are not regarded as migrations, as the movement is generally seasonal , there is no intention to settle in the new place, and only a few people have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. Temporary movement for travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or

7638-422: The country of destination (attraction factors or "pull factors"). "Push-pull factors" are the reasons that push or attract people to a particular place. "Push" factors are the negative aspects(for example wars) of the country of origin, often decisive in people's choice to emigrate. The "pull" factors are the positive aspects of a different country that encourages people to emigrate to seek a better life. For example,

7752-440: The demand for workers in order to sustain national economies. Thus one category of economic migrants – generally from impoverished developing countries – migrates to obtain sufficient income for survival. Such migrants often send some of their income homes to family members in the form of economic remittances , which have become an economic staple in a number of developing countries. People may also move or are forced to move as

7866-506: The editors of a leading scientific journal on the subject, the Forced Migration Review , offer the following definition: Forced migration refers to the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (displaced by conflict) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects. These different causes of migration leave people with one choice, to move to

7980-414: The emigrants from both companies to Utah through snow and severe weather. When the Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9, 68 members of the company had died from disease and exposure. Meanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. After passing Fort Bridger, the leaders of the backup party concluded that

8094-451: The emigrants to Iowa City. Unaware of how many emigrants to expect, Taylor ordered the construction of 100 handcarts, but that would be inadequate for the companies. The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City building additional handcarts and obtaining supplies before beginning their trek of about 1,300 miles (2,100 km). About 815 emigrants from the first two ships were organized into

8208-484: The emigrants who later formed the Martin Company. The late departures may have been the result of difficulties in procuring ships in response to the unexpected demand. With slow communications in the era before the transatlantic telegraph, the church's agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and made frantic preparations for their arrival. When the emigrants arrived in Iowa City, no handcarts had been built, and three weeks were spent hastily assembling

8322-425: The emigrants, gave them a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company. The members of the Willie Company had reached the end of their flour supplies and slaughtered the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained. On October 20, Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of

8436-478: The emigrants. In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie , Wyoming. They expected to be restocked with provisions, but they were unavailable. The companies cut back food rations down to 12 oz (340 g) per person, hoping that their supplies would last until help arrived from Utah. To lighten their loads, on October 17 the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per person, discarding clothing and blankets. On October 4,

8550-526: The end of the month 250 relief wagons were sent. The Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering extremely cold temperatures. On October 19, a blizzard struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide . A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted

8664-413: The first handcart company reached Winter Quarters, Ellsworth had a member of the company "tin" the wooden axles and also installed "thick hoop iron skeins" which enabled the handcart axles to turn more easily and resist breakage much better. The companies made good time, and their trips were largely uneventful. The emigrant companies included many children and elderly individuals, and transporting handcarts

8778-444: The first three handcart companies, headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth , Daniel D. McArthur, and Edward Bunker . The captains were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah and were familiar with the route. Most of the sub-captains were also returning missionaries. Across Iowa they followed an existing road about 275 miles (443 km) to Council Bluffs , following a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6 . After crossing

8892-426: The first year's migration were made entirely of wood; in later years a stronger design was substituted, which included metal elements. The handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units. Five people were assigned per handcart, with each individual limited to 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of clothing and bedding. Each round tent, supported by a center pole, housed 20 occupants and

9006-583: The following areas of societies: food/cuisine, sport, music, art/culture, ideas and beliefs; civic-political contributions relate to participation in civic duties in the context of accepted authority of the State. It is in recognition of the importance of these remittances that the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 targets to substantially reduce the transaction costs of migrants remittances to less than 3% by 2030. Migration

9120-503: The form of international treaties in which States have reached an agreement on the application of human rights and the related responsibilities of States in specific areas. The 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (Refugee Convention) are two significant examples notable for being widely ratified. Other migration conventions have not been so broadly accepted, such as

9234-460: The frequent moves, church members were unable to prevent opposition, culminating in the extermination order against all Mormons living in Missouri by the state's governor Lilburn Boggs in 1838 and the murder of their leader Joseph Smith in 1844. After Smith's death, Brigham Young said that he had received divine direction to organize the church members. In early 1846 he began leading them beyond

9348-441: The goal and reason for relocation, migrants can be divided into three categories: migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers . Each category is defined broadly as the combination of circumstances that motivate a person to change their location. As such, migrants are traditionally described as persons who change the country of residence for general reasons. These purposes may include better job opportunities or healthcare needs. This term

9462-505: The government of Armenia periodically gives incentives to people who will migrate to live in villages close to the border with Azerbaijan. This is an implementation of a push strategy, and the reason people do not want to live near the border is security concerns given tensions and hostility because of Azerbaijan. Although the push-pull factors are opposed, both are sides of the same coin, being equally important. Although specific to forced migration, any other harmful factor can be considered

9576-463: The handcart system's demise by disrupting immigration from Europe and placing severe restrictions on rail travel from the East Coast. At the end of that conflict, the church implemented a new system of emigration in which wagon trains travelled east from Salt Lake City in the spring and returned with emigrants in the summer. The transcontinental railroad was being constructed in the mid-to-late 1860s and

9690-477: The highlands of Anatolia , the Pannonian Plain , into Mesopotamia , or southwards, into the rich pastures of China. Bogumil Terminski uses the term "migratory domino effect" to describe this process in the context of Sea People invasion. The theory is that migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation; Idyorough (2008) believes that towns and cities are

9804-792: The income difference between neighbours or other households in the migrant-sending community is essential in migration. The incentive to migrate is a lot higher in areas with a high level of economic inequality . In the short run, remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may decrease it. There are two stages of migration for workers: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try to capitalise on their investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new capital to provide better schooling for their children and better homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for neighbours and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success. World-systems theory looks at migration from

9918-459: The journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies. The trek was disastrous for two of the companies, the Willie and Martin companies . Both started their journey dangerously late in 1856 and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming . Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way. John Chislett,

10032-545: The journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company on August 27. Two ox-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed the Martin Company. Near Wood River , Nebraska , a herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede , and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds (45 kg) of flour. In early September, Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as

10146-452: The labour markets in these developed countries consist of two segments: the primary market, which requires high-skilled labour, and the secondary market, which is very labour-intensive, requiring low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries into more developed countries results from a pull created by a need for labour in the developed countries in their secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill

10260-435: The last half-century. Women migrate alone or with their family members and community. Even though female migration is largely viewed as an association rather than independent migration, emerging studies argue complex and manifold reasons for this. As of 2019, the top ten immigration destinations were: In the same year, the top countries of origin were: Besides these rankings, according to absolute numbers of migrants,

10374-426: The long historical ties between Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries also prompt many to migrate. Whether a person decides to move to another country depends on the relative skill premier of the source and host countries. One is speaking of positive selection when the host country shows a higher skill premium than the source country. On the other hand, negative selection occurs when the source country displays

10488-504: The lowest rung of the labour market because the native labourers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for migrant workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labour pushes wages up, making migration even more enticing. This theory states that migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the level of individual workers and their economic incentives but that wider social entities must also be considered. One such social entity

10602-590: The members and missionaries of the church. Although the Star began as a monthly periodical, over the course of its 130-year history, it became a semi-monthly and then weekly paper. Due to the Priesthood Correlation Program of the LDS Church, which sought to encourage uniformity and extend control over printed materials, the Millennial Star was replaced by Ensign at the end of 1970. The following

10716-551: The migration and concentration of human beings in towns and cities. Countryside, towns and cities do not just exist, but they do so to meet the basic human needs of food, security and the reproduction of the human species. Therefore, migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation. Social services in the towns and cities are provided to meet these basic needs for human survival and pleasure. By their very nature, international migration and displacement are transnational issues concerning

10830-571: The most part, migration governance has been closely associated with State sovereignty. States retain the power of deciding on the entry and stay of non-nationals because migration directly affects some of the defining elements of a State. Comparative surveys reveal varying degrees of openness to migrants across countries, considering policies such as visa availability, employment prerequisites, and paths to residency. Bilateral and multilateral arrangements are features of migration governance at an international level. There are several global arrangements in

10944-709: The mouth of Emigration Canyon by young men from Phoenix, Arizona , using handcarts between metal wheels repurposed from old farm wagons. In 1968, 44 girls from Long Beach, California reenacted that same stretch of the Mormon Trail with homemade handcarts. From the mid-1970s until the early 1990s, participation in handcart reenactments were offered at BYU as a wilderness survival activity for youth conference participants. Beginning in 1977, similar treks were offered as part of Ricks College 's outdoor recreation program, on connected jeep trails from Rexburg, Idaho and into Montana . In 2006, Harriet Petherick Bushman created

11058-405: The origin and destination States and States through which migrants may travel (often referred to as "transit" States) or in which they are hosted following displacement across national borders. And yet, somewhat paradoxically, the majority of migration governance has historically remained with individual states. Their policies and regulations on migration are typically made at the national level. For

11172-416: The party was met by Ephraim Hanks , bringing meat from a recently slaughtered buffalo. The meat likely saved many lives as the nutritive value was much higher than that of the other supplies. He also performed many blessings and helped in some amputations to stop the progression of the frostbite and gangrene that would have otherwise killed more members of the company. Three days later the main rescue party met

11286-572: The politics within countries of origin. Certain laws of social science have been proposed to describe human migration. The following was a standard list after Ernst Georg Ravenstein 's proposal in the 1880s: Demographer Everett S. Lee's model divides factors causing migrations into two groups of factors: push and pull. Push factors are things that are unfavourable about the home area that one lives in, and pull factors are things that attract one to another host area. Push factors : Pull factors : The modern field of climate history suggests that

11400-399: The push and pull factors all interact together to cause or bring about migration and higher concentration of individuals into towns and cities. The higher the technology of production of food and security and the higher the cooperative relationship among human beings in the production of food and security and the reproduction of the human species, the higher would be the push and pull factors in

11514-419: The river, though shallow at about 2 feet (0.61 metres), was also 90 to 120 feet (27 to 37 metres) wide. The stream temperature was frigid and clogged with floating ice. Some of the men of the rescue party spent hours pulling the carts and carrying many of the emigrants across the river, while many members of the company crossed the river themselves, with some pulling their own handcarts. The rescue parties escorted

11628-459: The route. By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years had to pay their own way. With the increased cost, the number of handcart emigrants dropped from nearly 2,000 in 1856 to about 480 in 1857. In 1857 two companies made the trek, both arriving in Salt Lake City by September 13. With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War ,

11742-400: The struggles of the companies. He described Richards as a scapegoat for Young's fundamental errors in planning, though Howard Christy, professor emeritus at Brigham Young University , noted that Richards had the authority to halt the companies' late departure because he was the highest-ranking official in the Florence, Nebraska area. Christy also pointed out that Young and the other members of

11856-529: The successive waves of Eurasian nomadic movement throughout history have had their origins in climatic cycles , which have expanded or contracted pastureland in Central Asia, especially Mongolia and to its west the Altai Mountains . People were displaced from their home ground by other tribes trying to find land that essential flocks could graze, each group pushing the next further to the south and west, into

11970-475: The theory, according to the osmosis phenomenon, humans migrate from countries with less migration pressure to countries with high migration pressure. To measure the latter, the natural determinants of human migration replace the variables of the second principle of thermodynamics used to measure the osmotic pressure . A number of social scientists have examined immigration from a sociological perspective, paying particular attention to how immigration affects and

12084-498: The third followed less than a week later. The first three companies were regarded as having demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts. The last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England. The ship Thornton , carrying the emigrants who became the Willie Company, left England on May 4. The leader of the Latter-day Saints on the ship was James G. Willie . Horizon departed eleven days later, carrying

12198-458: The total number of migrants, based on the figure recorded in 2013). At levels of roughly 3 percent the share of migrants among the world population has remained remarkably constant over the last 5 decades. Voluntary migration is based on the initiative and the free will of the person and is influenced by a combination of factors: economic, political and social: either in the migrants' country of origin (determinant factors or "push factors") or in

12312-406: The wayside; falling, chilled by the cold; children crying, their limbs stiffened by cold, their feet bleeding and some of them bare to snow and frost. The sight is almost too much for the stoutest of us; but we go on doing all we can, not doubting nor despairing. At Devil's Gate, the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following

12426-532: The western frontier of the United States to settle in the Great Basin . Soon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847, the church encouraged its converts in Europe to emigrate to Utah. On December 23, 1847, the church leadership sent an epistle to the members in the British Isles saying "Emigrate as speedily as possible to this vicinity." Many British church members were disparaged and ridiculed due to

12540-480: The western terminus of the rail line, where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies, while later emigrants traveled by rail and boat up the Missouri River to Florence, Nebraska (now part of Omaha ). Built to Young's design, the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow , with two wheels. They were five feet (1.5 metres) in diameter and a single axle four and a half feet (1.4 m) wide, and weighing 60 pounds (27 kg). Running along each side of

12654-407: Was completed in 1869; the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, progressively shortening the trip. Handcart pioneers and the handcart movement are important parts of LDS culture , music and fiction . Arthur King Peters described these journeys as important parts of Mormon history and stated that these journeys caused the qualities of discipline, devotion, and self-sacrifice to be shown among

12768-420: Was difficult. Journals and recollections describe periods of illness and hunger; the handcart companies were not able to carry enough food to sustain themselves without additional relief supplies sent from Utah. Hafen and Hafen's Handcarts to Zion lists 13 deaths from the first company, seven from the second, and fewer than seven from the third. The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and

12882-462: Was supervised by a tent captain. Five tents were supervised by the captain of a hundred (or "sub-captain"). Provisions for each group of one hundred emigrants were carried in an ox wagon, and were distributed by the tent captains. The first two ships departed England in late March and mid-April and sailed to Boston. John Taylor was the church's agent in New York, and he arranged train transportation for

12996-472: Was then serving as Mission president in the area, became the editor. After that point, editing and supervision of the Star fell to the subsequent mission presidents of the church's European Mission , which was based in England. When Orson Pratt was called as mission president in 1848, he also became the editor and publisher of the Millennial Star . In his first issue as editor, he also printed an address to

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