115-532: Procambarus fallax forma virginalis Martin, Dorn, Kawai, van der Heiden & Scholtz, 2010 The marbled crayfish or Marmorkrebs ( Procambarus virginalis ) is a parthenogenetic crayfish that was discovered in the pet trade in Germany in 1995. Marbled crayfish are closely related to the "slough crayfish", Procambarus fallax , which is widely distributed across Florida. No natural populations of marbled crayfish are known. Information provided by one of
230-473: A Northwest Passage . Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name " New France " for northeastern North America. After a few expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and there were religious wars between Protestants and Catholics . Around 1580 however, the rise of the fur trade (particularly
345-545: A Leu coefficient (18.41±2.51% of total amino acids) and a BCAA coefficient (28.76±2.39% of total amino acids), which is comparable to or higher than that of an industrial gold standard such as casein (Leu coefficient 8.65±0.08%; BCAA coefficient 20.03±0.73%). Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis ( / ˌ p ɑːr θ ɪ n oʊ ˈ dʒ ɛ n ɪ s ɪ s , - θ ɪ n ə -/ ; from the Greek παρθένος , parthénos , 'virgin' + γένεσις , génesis , 'creation' )
460-445: A consequence, research on human parthenogenesis is focused on the production of embryonic stem cells for use in medical treatment, not as a reproductive strategy. In 2022, researchers reported that they have achieved parthenogenesis in mice for viable offspring born from unfertilized eggs, addressing the problems of genomic imprinting by "targeted DNA methylation rewriting of seven imprinting control regions". In 1955, Helen Spurway ,
575-427: A drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilized eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically. Facultative parthenogenesis occurs when a female can produce offspring either sexually or via asexual reproduction. Facultative parthenogenesis
690-445: A female), or they could have one Z and one W chromosome (female). Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which the embryo develops directly from an egg without need for fertilization . It occurs naturally in some plants, algae , invertebrate animal species (including nematodes , some tardigrades , water fleas , some scorpions , aphids , some mites, some bees , some Phasmatodea , and parasitic wasps ), and
805-423: A fertile, viable female in a few, e.g., boas ). ZW offspring are produced by endoreplication before meiosis or by central fusion. ZZ and WW offspring occur either by terminal fusion or by endomitosis in the egg cell. In polyploid obligate parthenogens, like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female. In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from
920-419: A few vertebrates , such as some fish , amphibians , reptiles , and birds . This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a number of animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice. Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the bdelloid rotifers ), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. This
1035-451: A few vertebrates , such as some fish , amphibians , and reptiles . This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice. Normal egg cells form in the process of meiosis and are haploid , with half as many chromosomes as their mother's body cells. Haploid individuals, however, are usually non-viable, and parthenogenetic offspring usually have
1150-620: A full set (two sets of genes) provided solely by the mother. Thus, a male is not needed to provide sperm to fertilize the egg. This form of asexual reproduction is thought in some cases to be a serious threat to biodiversity for the subsequent lack of gene variation and potentially decreased fitness of the offspring. Some invertebrate species that feature (partial) sexual reproduction in their native range are found to reproduce solely by parthenogenesis in areas to which they have been introduced . Relying solely on parthenogenetic reproduction has several advantages for an invasive species : it obviates
1265-494: A geneticist specializing in the reproductive biology of the guppy ( Lebistes reticulatus ), claimed that parthenogenesis may occur (though very rarely) in humans, leading to so-called "virgin births". This created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike. Sometimes an embryo may begin to divide without fertilization, but it cannot fully develop on its own; so while it may create some skin and nerve cells, it cannot create others (such as skeletal muscle) and becomes
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#17328443550831380-697: A hotbed for the illegal smuggling of liquor and the biggest supplier into the United States, which was under complete prohibition . Prohibition in Ontario came to an end in 1927 with the establishment of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario under the government of Howard Ferguson . The sale and consumption of liquor, wine, and beer are still controlled by some of the most extreme laws in North America to ensure strict community standards and revenue generation from
1495-447: A land area of 892,411.76 km (344,562.11 sq mi), it had a population density of 15.9/km (41.3/sq mi) in 2021. The largest population centres in Ontario are Toronto , Ottawa , Hamilton , Kitchener , London and Oshawa , which all have more than 300,000 inhabitants. The percentages given below add to more than 100 per cent because of dual responses (e.g., "French and Canadian" response generates an entry both in
1610-617: A male and a female produces only females. The reason for this is the non-random segregation of the sex chromosomes 'X' and 'O' during spermatogenesis . Facultative parthenogenesis is often used to describe cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in normally sexual animals. For example, many cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in sharks , some snakes , Komodo dragons , and a variety of domesticated birds were widely attributed to facultative parthenogenesis. These cases are examples of spontaneous parthenogenesis. The occurrence of such asexually produced eggs in sexual animals can be explained by
1725-414: A male is absent from the habitat or if it is unable to produce viable offspring. However, California condors and the tropical lizard Lepidophyma smithii both can produce parthenogenic offspring in the presence of males, indicating that facultative parthenogenesis may be more common than previously thought and is not simply a response to a lack of males. In aphids , a generation sexually conceived by
1840-505: A male is present and available for a female to breed with. In times of stress, offspring produced by sexual reproduction may be fitter as they have new, possibly beneficial gene combinations. In addition, sexual reproduction provides the benefit of meiotic recombination between non- sister chromosomes , a process associated with repair of DNA double-strand breaks and other DNA damages that may be induced by stressful conditions. Many taxa with heterogony have within them species that have lost
1955-424: A meiotic error, leading to eggs produced via automixis . Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means. Many species have transitioned to obligate parthenogenesis over evolutionary time. Well documented transitions to obligate parthenogenesis have been found in numerous metazoan taxa, albeit through highly diverse mechanisms. These transitions often occur as
2070-667: A million years. The success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new material to the gene pool, which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million. In addition, the Amazon molly is known to reproduce by gynogenesis. Hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of hybrids . Hybridogenetic hybrids (for example AB genome ), usually females, during gametogenesis exclude one of parental genomes (A) and produce gametes with unrecombined genome of second parental species (B), instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes. First genome (A)
2185-662: A non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor, enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb to developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference. Induced parthenogenesis in mice and monkeys often results in abnormal development. This
2300-645: A potential invasive species because only a single individual is needed to establish a new population, and they can reproduce at high rates. Marbled crayfish are also a known carrier of a crayfish plague pathogen, Aphanomyces astaci . Marbled crayfish inhabit freshwater environments, and have not successfully invaded ecosystems with higher salinity levels due to their reduced ability to reproduce and grow. However, it has been proven that they can adjust to increasing saline environments, which may allow for their further expansion. They have since been introduced into natural ecosystems on five continents. They have been found in
2415-439: A result of inbreeding or mutation within large populations. Some documented species, specifically salamanders and geckos, that rely on obligate parthenogenesis as their major method of reproduction. As such, there are over 80 species of unisex reptiles (mostly lizards but including a single snake species), amphibians and fishes in nature for which males are no longer a part of the reproductive process. A female produces an ovum with
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#17328443550832530-606: A result, for the first time, the English-speaking population of Canada West surpassed the French-speaking population of Canada East , tilting the representative balance of power. In 1849, the districts of southern Ontario were abolished by the Province of Canada , and county governments took over certain municipal responsibilities. The Province of Canada also began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with
2645-468: A significant industry, the region's economy depends highly on manufacturing . In contrast, Northern Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and heavy forestation, with mining and forestry making up the region's major industries. Ontario is a term thought to be derived from Indigenous origins, either Ontarí:io , a Huron ( Wyandot ) word meaning "great lake", or possibly skanadario , which means "beautiful water" or "sparkling water" in
2760-477: A single specimen from 1988. Because marbled crayfish are genetically identical, easy to care for, and reproduce at high rates, they are a potential model organism , particularly for studying development . A major drawback, however, is the long generation time (several months) compared to other research organisms. The marbled crayfish genome was sequenced in 2018, which provides an essential foundation for further research. Marbled crayfish have caused concern as
2875-401: A sperm cell; this must have happened early in development, as self-activated eggs quickly lose their ability to be fertilized. The unfertilized cells eventually duplicated their DNA, boosting their chromosomes to 46. When the unfertilized cells hit a developmental block, the fertilized cells took over and developed that tissue. The boy had asymmetrical facial features and learning difficulties but
2990-606: A type of benign tumor called an ovarian teratoma . Spontaneous ovarian activation is not rare and has been known about since the 19th century. Some teratomas can even become primitive fetuses (fetiform teratoma) with imperfect heads, limbs and other structures, but are non-viable. In 1995, there was a reported case of partial human parthenogenesis; a boy was found to have some of his cells (such as white blood cells ) to be lacking in any genetic content from his father. Scientists believe that an unfertilized egg began to self-divide but then had some (but not all) of its cells fertilized by
3105-526: Is English, although there exists a number of French-speaking communities across Ontario . French-language services are made available for communities with a sizeable French-speaking population; a service that is ensured under the French Language Services Act of 1989. In the 2021 census , Ontario had a population of 14,223,942 living in 5,491,201 of its 5,929,250 total dwellings, a 5.8 percent change from its 2016 population of 13,448,494. With
3220-431: Is Ontario's provincial capital. Ontario is bordered by the province of Manitoba to the west, Hudson Bay and James Bay to the north, and Quebec to the east and northeast. To the south, it is bordered by the U.S. states of (from west to east) Minnesota , Michigan , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York . Almost all of Ontario's 2,700 km (1,700 mi) border with the United States follows rivers and lakes: from
3335-662: Is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which the embryo develops directly from an egg without need for fertilization . In animals , parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell . In plants , parthenogenesis is a component process of apomixis . In algae , parthenogenesis can mean the development of an embryo from either an individual sperm or an individual egg. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some plants, algae , invertebrate animal species (including nematodes , some tardigrades , water fleas , some scorpions , aphids , some mites, some bees , some Phasmatodea , and parasitic wasps ), and
3450-460: Is because in asexual reproduction a successful genotype can spread quickly without being modified by sex or wasting resources on male offspring who will not give birth. Some species can produce both sexually and through parthenogenesis, and offspring in the same clutch of a species of tropical lizard can be a mix of sexually produced offspring and parthenogenically produced offspring. In California condors, facultative parthenogenesis can occur even when
3565-480: Is because mammals have imprinted genetic regions, where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring for development to proceed normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes, leading to developmental abnormalities. It has been suggested that defects in placental folding or interdigitation are one cause of swine parthenote abortive development. As
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3680-478: Is called facultative parthenogenesis (other terms are cyclical parthenogenesis, heterogamy or heterogony ). The switch between sexuality and parthenogenesis in such species may be triggered by the season ( aphid , some gall wasps ), or by a lack of males or by conditions that favour rapid population growth ( rotifers and cladocerans like Daphnia ). In these species asexual reproduction occurs either in summer (aphids) or as long as conditions are favourable. This
3795-429: Is classified as humid continental. Ontario has three main climatic regions: In the northeastern parts of Ontario, extending south as far as Kirkland Lake , the cold waters of Hudson Bay depress summer temperatures, making it cooler than other locations at similar latitudes. The same is true on the northern shore of Lake Superior , which cools hot, humid air from the south, leading to cooler summer temperatures. Along
3910-444: Is extremely rare in nature, with only a few examples of animal taxa capable of facultative parthenogenesis. One of the best-known examples of taxa exhibiting facultative parthenogenesis are mayflies ; presumably, this is the default reproductive mode of all species in this insect order. Facultative parthenogenesis has generally been believed to be a response to a lack of a viable male. A female may undergo facultative parthenogenesis if
4025-531: Is more complicated. In some cases, the offspring are haploid (e.g., male ants ). In other cases, collectively called automictic parthenogenesis , the ploidy is restored to diploidy by various means. This is because haploid individuals are not viable in most species. In automictic parthenogenesis, the offspring differ from one another and from their mother. They are called half clones of their mother. Automixis includes several reproductive mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic. Diploidy can be restored by
4140-495: Is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material. This can result in parthenogenetic offspring being unique from each other and from their mother. In apomictic parthenogenesis, the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female. In the case of aphids, parthenogenetically produced males and females are clones of their mother except that
4255-438: Is restored by fertilization of these gametes with gametes from the first species (AA, sexual host, usually male). Hybridogenesis is not completely asexual, but hemiclonal: half the genome is passed to the next generation clonally , unrecombined, intact (B), other half sexually , recombined (A). This process continues, so that each generation is half (or hemi-) clonal on the mother's side and has half new genetic material from
4370-462: Is the country's most populous province . As of the 2021 Canadian census , it is home to 38.5 per cent of the country's population, and is the second-largest province by total area (after Quebec ). Ontario is Canada's fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area of all the Canadian provinces and territories. It is home to the nation's capital, Ottawa , and its most populous city, Toronto , which
4485-455: Is the southernmost extent of Canada's mainland. Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the northern border of California . Ontario's climate varies by season and location. Three air sources affect it: cold, dry, arctic air from the north (dominant factor during the winter months, and for a longer part of
4600-778: The American Revolution . The Kingdom of Great Britain granted them 200 acres (81 ha) land and other items with which to rebuild their lives. The British also set up reserves in Ontario for the Mohawks who had fought for the British and had lost their land in New York state. Other Iroquois, also displaced from New York were resettled in 1784 at the Six Nations reserve at the west end of Lake Ontario. The Mississaugas, displaced by European settlements, would later move to Six Nations also. After
4715-785: The Canadian Pacific Railway (1875–1885) through Northern Ontario and the Canadian Prairies to British Columbia , Ontario manufacturing and industry flourished. However, population increases slowed after a large recession hit the province in 1893, thus slowing growth drastically but for only a few years. Many newly arrived immigrants and others moved west along the railway to the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia, sparsely settling Northern Ontario. The northern and western boundaries of Ontario were in dispute after Canadian Confederation . Ontario's right to Northwestern Ontario
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4830-555: The French Canadians . Accordingly, the two colonies were merged into the Province of Canada by the Act of Union 1840 , with the capital initially at Kingston , and Upper Canada becoming known as Canada West . Responsible government was achieved in 1848. There were heavy waves of immigration in the 1840s, and the population of Canada West more than doubled by 1851 over the previous decade. As
4945-495: The Great Lakes . Hunting and gathering remained predominant throughout the early Woodland period , and social structures and trade continued to develop. Around 500 AD , corn cultivation began, later expanding to include beans and squash around 1100 AD. Increased agriculture enabled more permanent, fortified, and significantly larger settlements. In southern Ontario during the 1400s, the population of some villages numbered in
5060-470: The HLA region of DNA. These stem cells are called HLA homozygous parthenogenetic human stem cells (hpSC-Hhom) and would allow derivatives of these cells to be implanted without immune rejection. With selection of oocyte donors according to HLA haplotype , it would be possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be MHC-matched with a significant number of individuals within
5175-521: The Iroquoian languages . Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes. The first mention of the name Ontario was in 1641, when "Ontario" was used to describe the land on the north shore of the easternmost part of the Great Lakes. It was adopted as the official name of the new province at Confederation in 1867. The thinly populated Canadian Shield , which dominates the northwestern and central portions of
5290-591: The Jésuites and Supliciens , began to establish posts along the Great Lakes. The French allied with most Indigenous groups of Ontario, all for the fur trade and for defence against Iroquois attacks (which would later be called the Iroquois Wars ). The French would declare their Indigenous allies to be subjects of the King of France and would often act as mediators between different groups. The Iroquois later allied themselves with
5405-598: The Madawaska River in Renfrew County . The Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. The temperate and fertile Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence Valley in the south is part of the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests ecoregion where the forest has now been largely replaced by agriculture, industrial and urban development. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls , part of
5520-590: The Niagara Escarpment . The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario covers approximately 87% of the province's surface area; conversely, Southern Ontario contains 94% of the population. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario (near Windsor and Detroit, Michigan ) that
5635-673: The War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River , but were defeated and pushed back by the British, Canadian fencibles and militias, and First Nations warriors. However, the Americans eventually gained control of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The 1813 Battle of York saw American troops defeat the garrison at the Upper Canada capital of York . The Americans looted
5750-442: The diploid chromosome number. Depending on the mechanism involved in restoring the diploid number of chromosomes, parthenogenetic offspring may have anywhere between all and half of the mother's alleles . In some types of parthenogenesis the offspring having all of the mother's genetic material are called full clones and those having only half are called half clones. Full clones are usually formed without meiosis. If meiosis occurs,
5865-415: The mice created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang deceived the world about being the first to create artificially cloned human embryos, he contributed a major breakthrough to stem cell research by creating human embryos using parthenogenesis. A form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Here, offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis, but with
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#17328443550835980-541: The "Prussians of Ontario". The regulation was eventually repealed in 1927. Influenced by events in the United States, the government of William Hearst introduced prohibition of alcoholic drinks in 1916 with the passing of the Ontario Temperance Act . However, residents could distil and retain their own personal supply, and liquor producers could continue distillation and export for sale, allowing this already sizeable industry to strengthen further. Ontario became
6095-680: The 1795 Jay Treaty . In 1788, while part of the province of Quebec, southern Ontario was divided into four districts : Hesse , Lunenburg , Mecklenburg , and Nassau . In 1792, the four districts were renamed: Hesse became the Western District, Lunenburg became the Eastern District, Mecklenburg became the Midland District, and Nassau became the Home District. Counties were created within the districts. The population of Canada west of
6210-461: The 1850s, between finely balanced political groups: conservative and reform groups from Canada West and Canada East aligned against reform and liberal groups from Canada East each group having some support from French-Canadian and English-Canadian legislators. There was also a fear of aggression from the United States during and immediately after the American Civil War . These factors led to
6325-491: The American War of Independence, the first reserves for First Nations were established. These are situated at Six Nations (1784), Tyendinaga (1793) and Akwesasne (1795). Six Nations and Tyendinaga were established by the British for those Indigenous groups who had fought on the side of the British, and were expelled from the new United States. Akwesasne was a pre-existing Mohawk community and its borders were formalized under
6440-786: The American states of Idaho , Missouri , Tennessee , Michigan , Maryland , and in the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Ontario . Marbled crayfish are eaten in Madagascar. Human interest in consuming them may contribute to their spread. Protein isolates from whole-body homogenate (including chitinous exoskeleton) of Procambarus virginalis are hypothesized to be dense in branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and leucine (Leu). For potential use in biomedical research or as additives in supplements for BCAA and Leu. The mentioned crayfish species could offer 6.36–7.39 g Leu 100 g−1 dry matter (at 43–48% protein only). Crayfish whole-body protein isolates exhibit
6555-658: The British. From 1634 to 1640, the Huron were devastated by European infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox , to which they had no immunity. By 1700, the Iroquois had been driven out or left the area that would become Ontario and the Mississaugas of the Ojibwa had settled the north shore of Lake Ontario. The remaining Huron settled north of Quebec. During the French and Indian War ,
6670-653: The Canadian Shield which traverses the province from northwest to southeast and also above the Niagara Escarpment which crosses the south. The highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres (2,274 ft) above sea level in Temagami , Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m (1,640 ft) are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands and in hilltops near
6785-505: The International Stem Cell Corporation of California announced that Elena Revazova had intentionally created human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis. The process may offer a way for creating stem cells genetically matched to a particular female to treat degenerative diseases. The same year, Revazova and ISCC published an article describing how to produce human stem cells that are homozygous in
6900-570: The Lake Superior-Hudson Bay watershed, known as the District of Keewatin ) would become part of Ontario, a victory embodied in the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 . He also presided over the emergence of the province into the economic powerhouse of Canada. Mowat was the creator of what is often called Empire Ontario . Beginning with Macdonald's National Policy (1879) and the construction of
7015-625: The North American theatre of the Seven Years' War of 1754 to 1763, the British defeated the armies of New France and its Indigenous allies. In the Treaty of Paris 1763 France ceded most of its possessions in North America to Britain. Using the Quebec Act , Britain re-organised the territory into the Province of Quebec . In 1782–1784, 5,000 United Empire Loyalists entered what is now Ontario following
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#17328443550837130-719: The Pays-d'en-Haut was quite large and would today include the province of Ontario, as well as, in whole or in part, the American states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. Indigenous peoples were the vast majority of the Pays d'en Haut population. As for Northern Ontario, the English explorer Henry Hudson sailed into Hudson Bay in 1611 and claimed its drainage basin for England. The area would become known as Rupert's Land . Samuel de Champlain reached Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries, such as
7245-590: The Southern Hemisphere. Parthenogenesis does not apply to isogamous species. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in aphids , Daphnia , rotifers , nematodes , and some other invertebrates, as well as in many plants. Among vertebrates , strict parthenogenesis is only known to occur in lizards, snakes, birds, and sharks. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles make use of various forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis (an incomplete form of parthenogenesis). The first all-female (unisexual) reproduction in vertebrates
7360-630: The St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence substantially increased during this period, a fact recognized by the Constitutional Act of 1791 , which split Quebec into the Canadas : Upper Canada southwest of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence, and Lower Canada east of it. John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canada's first Lieutenant governor in 1793. A second wave of Americans, not all of them necessarily loyalists moved to Upper Canada after 1790 until
7475-551: The alcohol retail monopoly are upheld. The post- World War II period was one of exceptional prosperity and growth. Ontario has been the recipients of most immigration to Canada, largely immigrants from war-torn Europe in the 1950s and 1960s and following changes in federal immigration law , a massive influx of non-Europeans since the 1970s. From a largely ethnically British province, Ontario has rapidly become culturally very diverse. The nationalist movement in Quebec, particularly after
7590-424: The case of pre-meiotic doubling, recombination, if it happens, occurs between identical sister chromatids. If terminal fusion (restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated and whatever heterozygosity
7705-474: The category " French Canadian " and in the category "Canadian"). The majority of Ontarians are of English or other European descent including large Scottish, Irish and Italian communities. Slightly less than 5 per cent of the population of Ontario is Franco-Ontarian , that is those whose native tongue is French, although those with French ancestry account for 11 per cent of the population. Compared to natural increase or interprovincial migration , immigration
7820-584: The demand for beaver pelts), reignited French interest. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established France's first colonial settlement in New France, the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City ), in the colony of Canada (now southern Quebec). Afterwards, French explorers continued to travel west, establishing new villages along the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River. French explorers, the first of which
7935-409: The doubling of the chromosomes without cell division before meiosis begins or after meiosis is completed. This is an endomitotic cycle. Diploidy can also be restored by fusion of the first two blastomeres , or by fusion of the meiotic products. The chromosomes may not separate at one of the two anaphases (restitutional meiosis)l; or the nuclei produced may fuse; or one of the polar bodies may fuse with
8050-480: The eastern shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron winter temperatures are slightly moderated but come with frequent heavy lake-effect snow squalls that increase seasonal snowfall totals to upwards of 3 m (10 ft) in some places. These regions have higher annual precipitation, in some places over 100 cm (39 in). Severe thunderstorms peak in summer. Windsor , in Southern (Southwestern) Ontario, has
8165-490: The egg cell at some stage during its maturation. Some authors consider all forms of automixis sexual as they involve recombination. Many others classify the endomitotic variants as asexual and consider the resulting embryos parthenogenetic. Among these authors, the threshold for classifying automixis as a sexual process depends on when the products of anaphase I or of anaphase II are joined. The criterion for sexuality varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis, to those where
8280-556: The election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, contributed to driving many businesses and English-speaking people out of Quebec to Ontario, and as a result, Toronto surpassed Montreal as the largest city and economic centre of Canada. Depressed economic conditions in the Maritime Provinces have also resulted in de-population of those provinces in the 20th century, with heavy migration into Ontario. Ontario's official language
8395-469: The environment in the whole of the European Union. The Madagascar population has grown rapidly and is estimated to be in the millions, with their geographical distribution having increased 100-fold from 2007 to 2017, causing concern among local authorities. Marbled crayfish are one of the most widely distributed species of crayfish in the international pet trade and release from aquariums has likely been
8510-500: The establishment of Algoma District and Nipissing District in 1858. An economic boom in the 1850s coincided with railway expansion across the province, further increasing the economic strength of Central Canada. With the repeal of the Corn Laws and a reciprocity agreement in place with the United States, various industries such as timber, mining, farming and alcohol distilling benefited tremendously. A political stalemate developed in
8625-465: The extreme north and northeast are mainly swampy and sparsely forested. Southern Ontario , which is further sub-divided into four sub-regions: Central Ontario (although not actually the province's geographic centre), Eastern Ontario , Golden Horseshoe and Southwestern Ontario (parts of which were formerly referred to as Western Ontario). Despite the rarity of mountainous terrain in the province, there are large areas of uplands, particularly within
8740-481: The father's side. This form of reproduction is seen in some live-bearing fish of the genus Poeciliopsis as well as in some of the Pelophylax spp. ("green frogs" or "waterfrogs"): Other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of modes of reproduction include i.e. Parthenogenesis, in the form of reproduction from a single individual (typically a god), is common in mythology, religion, and folklore around
8855-573: The first people to settle on the lands of Ontario, about 11,000 years ago, after crossing the Bering land bridge from Asia to North America between 25,000 to 50,000 years ago. During the Archaic period , which lasted from 8000-1000 BC , the population slowly increased, with a generally egalitarian hunter-gatherer society and a warmer climate. Trading routes also began emerging along the St. Lawrence River and around
8970-521: The formation of the Great Coalition in the elected Legislative Assembly, which initiated a series of conferences in the 1860s to effect a broader federal union of all British North American colonies. The British North America Act took effect on July 1, 1867, establishing the Dominion of Canada, initially with the four provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. The Province of Canada
9085-401: The fusion of its products), the offspring get all to more than half of the mother's genetic material and heterozygosity is mostly preserved (if the mother has two alleles for a locus, it is likely that the offspring will get both). This is because in anaphase I the homologous chromosomes are separated. Heterozygosity is not completely preserved when crossing over occurs in central fusion. In
9200-475: The harsh climate difficult, and some of those with the means eventually returned home or went south. However, population growth far exceeded emigration in the following decades. It was a mostly agrarian-based society, but canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, thereby improving previously damaged relations over time. Meanwhile, Ontario's numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into
9315-491: The human population. After an independent investigation, it was revealed that the discredited South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-Suk unknowingly produced the first human embryos resulting from parthenogenesis. Initially, Hwang claimed he and his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos, a result later found to be fabricated. Further examination of the chromosomes of these cells show indicators of parthenogenesis in those extracted stem cells, similar to those found in
9430-451: The interior and supplied water power for development. As the population increased, so did the industries and transportation networks, which in turn led to further development. By the end of the century, Ontario vied with Quebec as the nation's leader in terms of growth in population, industry, arts and communications. Unrest in the colony began to chafe against the aristocratic Family Compact who governed while benefiting economically from
9545-561: The lands of Ontario: the Algonquins , Mississaugas , Ojibway , Cree , Odawa , Pottowatomi , and Iroquois . In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell , prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East . Around 1522–1523, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via
9660-427: The late 19th century, leading to the rise of important mining centres in the northeast, such as Sudbury , Cobalt and Timmins . The province harnessed its water power to generate hydro-electric power and created the state-controlled Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, later Ontario Hydro . The availability of cheap electric power further facilitated the development of industry. The Ford Motor Company of Canada
9775-474: The main reason for their parthenogenetic reproduction. It is hypothesized that marbled crayfish originated from an error in meiosis resulting in a diploid gamete , which was then fertilized and created a viable triploid individual in a single generation. Marbled crayfish are thus a model for the rapid generation of species . Unlike other parthenogenetic organisms, the marbled crayfish is an extremely young species; all marbled crayfish are clonal descendants of
9890-485: The main source of unwanted introductions. Concerns about the potential damage from their introduction have prompted several jurisdictions to regulate ownership of marbled crayfish. The European Union instituted "a total ban on the possession, trade, transport, production and release of these species [including the marbled crayfish] in the wild" in 2016. Japan banned most North American crayfish species, including marbled crayfish, in 2020. Marbled crayfish are prohibited in
10005-540: The males lack one of the X chromosomes (XO). When meiosis is involved, the sex of the offspring depends on the type of sex determination system and the type of apomixis. In species that use the XY sex-determination system , parthenogenetic offspring have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the ZW sex-determination system the offspring genotype may be one of ZW (female), ZZ (male), or WW (non-viable in most species, but
10120-567: The metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a regulatory subunit of MPF, thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis. To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide,
10235-569: The most lightning strikes per year in Canada, averaging 33 days of thunderstorm activity per year. In a typical year, Ontario averages 11 confirmed tornado touchdowns. Ontario had a record 29 tornadoes in both 2006 and 2009. Tropical depression remnants occasionally bring heavy rains and winds in the south, but are rarely deadly. A notable exception was Hurricane Hazel which struck Southern Ontario centred on Toronto, in October 1954. Paleo-Indians were
10350-403: The need for individuals in a very sparse initial population to search for mates; and an exclusively female sex distribution allows a population to multiply and invade more rapidly (potentially twice as fast). Examples include several aphid species and the willow sawfly, Nematus oligospilus , which is sexual in its native Holarctic habitat but parthenogenetic where it has been introduced into
10465-512: The new areas in which it was interested were rapidly growing. After the federal government asked Ontario to pay for construction in the new disputed area, the province asked for an elaboration on its limits, and its boundary was moved north to the 51st parallel north . Once constituted as a province, Ontario proceeded to assert its economic and legislative power. In 1872, the lawyer Oliver Mowat became Premier of Ontario and remained as premier until 1896. He fought for provincial rights, weakening
10580-427: The nuclei fuse or to only those where gametes are mature at the time of fusion. Those cases of automixis that are classified as sexual reproduction are compared to self-fertilization in their mechanism and consequences. The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of automixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis or when central fusion occurs (restitutional meiosis of anaphase I or
10695-468: The offspring get only a fraction of the mother's alleles since crossing over of DNA takes place during meiosis, creating variation. Parthenogenetic offspring in species that use either the XY or the X0 sex-determination system have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the ZW sex-determination system , they have either two Z chromosomes (male) or two W chromosomes (mostly non-viable but rarely
10810-442: The original pet traders as to where the marbled crayfish originated was deemed "totally confusing and unreliable". The informal name Marmorkrebs is German for "marbled crayfish". Marbled crayfish were the first known decapod crustaceans to reproduce by parthenogenesis . All individuals are female, and the offspring are genetically identical to the parent. Marbled crayfish are triploid animals with 276 chromosomes, which may be
10925-463: The phenomenon is called deuterotoky. Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called apomictic parthenogenesis . Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the gametophyte can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are full clones of their mother, as in aphids. Parthenogenesis involving meiosis
11040-720: The power of the federal government in provincial matters, usually through well-argued appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. His battles with the federal government greatly decentralized Canada, giving the provinces far more power than John A. Macdonald had intended. He consolidated and expanded Ontario's educational and provincial institutions, created districts in Northern Ontario, and fought to ensure that those parts of Northwestern Ontario not historically part of Upper Canada (the vast areas north and west of
11155-609: The pre-war of 1812, many seeking available cheap land, and at the time, lower taxation. By 1798, there were eight districts: Eastern, Home, Johnstown , London , Midland, Newcastle , Niagara , and Western. By 1826, there were eleven districts: Bathurst , Eastern, Gore , Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa , and Western. By 1838, there were twenty districts: Bathurst, Brock, Colbourne, Dalhousie , Eastern, Gore, Home, Huron, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, Prince Edward, Simcoe , Talbot, Victoria, Wellington , and Western. American troops in
11270-458: The province, comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals , partly covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests , and studded with lakes and rivers. Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions: Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario . The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in
11385-529: The rebellion was quickly a failure. William Lyon Mackenzie escaped to the United States , where he declared the Republic of Canada on Navy Island on the Niagara River . Although both rebellions were put down in short order, the British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the causes. He recommended responsible government be granted, and Lower and Upper Canada be re-joined in an attempt to assimilate
11500-540: The region's resources, and who did not allow elected bodies power. This resentment spurred republican ideals and sowed the seeds for early Canadian nationalism . Accordingly, rebellion in favour of responsible government rose in both regions; Louis-Joseph Papineau led the Lower Canada Rebellion and William Lyon Mackenzie , first Toronto mayor , led the Upper Canada Rebellion . In Upper Canada ,
11615-428: The requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the presence of sperm in order to develop. However, the sperm cell does not contribute any genetic material to the offspring. Since gynogenetic species are all female, activation of their eggs requires mating with males of a closely related species for the needed stimulus. Some salamanders of the genus Ambystoma are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over
11730-454: The sexual phase and are now completely asexual. Many other cases of obligate parthenogenesis (or gynogenesis) are found among polyploids and hybrids where the chromosomes cannot pair for meiosis. The production of female offspring by parthenogenesis is referred to as thelytoky (e.g., aphids) while the production of males by parthenogenesis is referred to as arrhenotoky (e.g., bees). When unfertilized eggs develop into both males and females,
11845-533: The thousands, with longhouses that could house over a hundred people. Around this time, large-scale warfare began in southern Ontario, leading to the emergence of Iroquoian groups, including the Neutral Confederacy , Erie and Wendat (Huron). Groups in northern Ontario were primarily Algonquian and included the Ojibwe , who traded with the Iroquois. Many ethnocultural groups emerged and came to exist on
11960-659: The town and burned the Upper Canada Parliament Buildings during their brief occupation. The British would burn the American capital of Washington, D.C. in 1814. After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Europe rather than from the United States. As was the case in the previous decades, this immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. Despite affordable and often free land, many arriving newcomers, mostly from Britain and Ireland, found frontier life with
12075-575: The westerly Lake of the Woods , eastward along the major rivers and lakes of the Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River drainage system. There is only about 1 km ( 5 ⁄ 8 mi) of actual land border, made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. The great majority of Ontario's population and arable land is in Southern Ontario , and while agriculture remains
12190-515: The wild in the following countries: While initial reports of marbled crayfish in the wild in Europe consisted of only single individuals, the number of European countries reporting populations of marbled crayfish is rising. In Europe, the marbled crayfish is included since 2016 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern. This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into
12305-505: The world, including in ancient Greek myth ; for example, Athena was born from the head of Zeus . In Christianity and Islam, there is the virgin birth of Jesus ; there are stories of miraculous births in other religions including Islam. The theme is one of several aspects of reproductive biology explored in science fiction . Ontario Ontario is the southernmost province of Canada . Located in Central Canada , Ontario
12420-505: The year in far northern Ontario); Pacific polar air crossing in from the western Canadian Prairies/US Northern Plains ; and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontario's climate
12535-521: Was Étienne Brûlé who explored the Georgian Bay area in 1610–1612, mapped Southern Ontario and called the region the Pays d'en Haut ("Upper Country"), in reference to the region being upstream of the Saint Lawrence River. The colony of the Pays d'en Haut was formally established in 1610 as an administrative dependency of Canada, and was for defence and business rather than a settlement colony. The territory of
12650-488: Was described in the fish Poecilia formosa in 1932. Since then at least 50 species of unisexual vertebrate have been described, including at least 20 fish, 25 lizards, a single snake species, frogs, and salamanders. Use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring. During oocyte development, high metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at
12765-620: Was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . By 1899, there were seven northern districts: Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, and Thunder Bay. Four more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1912: Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury and Timiskaming. Mineral exploitation accelerated in
12880-599: Was divided into Ontario and Quebec so that each linguistic group would have its own province. Both Quebec and Ontario were required by section 93 of the British North America Act to safeguard existing educational rights and privileges of the Protestant and Catholic minorities. Thus, separate Catholic schools and school boards were permitted in Ontario. However, neither province had a constitutional requirement to protect its French- or English-speaking minority. Toronto
12995-629: Was established in 1904 and the McLaughlin Motor Car Company (later General Motors Canada ) was founded in 1907. The motor vehicle industry became the most lucrative industry for the Ontario economy during the 20th century. In July 1912, the Conservative government of James Whitney issued Regulation 17 which severely limited the availability of French-language schooling to the province's French-speaking minority. French Canadians reacted with outrage, journalist Henri Bourassa denouncing
13110-505: Was formally established as Ontario's provincial capital. The borders of Ontario, its new name in 1867, were provisionally expanded north and west. When the Province of Canada was formed, its borders were not entirely clear, and Ontario claimed eventually to reach all the way to the Rocky Mountains and Arctic Ocean . With Canada's acquisition of Rupert's Land, Ontario was interested in clearly defining its borders, especially since some of
13225-440: Was otherwise healthy. This would make him a parthenogenetic chimera (a child with two cell lineages in his body). While over a dozen similar cases have been reported since then (usually discovered after the patient demonstrated clinical abnormalities), there have been no scientifically confirmed reports of a non-chimeric, clinically healthy human parthenote (i.e. produced from a single, parthenogenetic-activated oocyte). In 2007,
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