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95-633: Manishtushu was the third king of the Akkadian Empire according to Old Babylonian tradition though listed as the 2nd, after Sargon, in the Ur III recension of the Sumerian King List. He was the son of Sargon of Akkad and Queen Tashlultum , brother of Enheduanna , Rimush , and Shu-Enlil , and the father of Naram-Sin . Only one year name is known. An unprovenanced tablet at the Baghdad Museum, from

190-467: A clay sealing of Tar'am-Agade (Akkad loves <her>), a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin , who was possibly married to an unidentified local endan (ruler). So great was the Akkadian Empire, especially Sargon and Narim-Sin, that its history was passed down for millennia. This ranged on one end to purported copies of still existing Sargonic period inscriptions to literary tales made up from

285-559: A coalition army led by the King of Awan and forced the vanquished to become his vassals. Also shortly after, another revolt took place: the Subartu the upper country—in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously. The Bible refers to the city of Akkad in the Book of Genesis , which states: " Cush [grandson of Noah ] became

380-652: A fleet down the Persian Gulf where 32 kings allied to fight him. Manishtushu was victorious and consequently looted their cities and silver mines, along with other expeditions to kingdoms along the Persian Gulf. He also sailed a fleet down the Tigris River that eventually traded with 37 other nations, conquered the city of Anshan in Elam , and rebuilt the destroyed temple of Inanna in Nineveh in c. 2260 BC. In Elam and Pashime , in

475-399: A highly placed family could achieve such a position. Originally a cupbearer ( Rabshakeh ) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa , Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. The royal cupbearer at this time was in fact a prominent political position, close to the king and with various high level responsibilities not suggested by

570-638: A message from Queen Victoria in the hope of resolving the situation peacefully. After being delayed for about a year in Massawa , Rassam at last received permission from the Emperor to enter his realm. Due to rebellions in Tigray Province , Rassam was forced to follow a circuitous route taking him to Kassala , then to Metemma along the western shore of Lake Tana before finally meeting with Emperor Tewodros in northern Gojjam . At first his effort seemed promising, as

665-833: A mission of inquiry to report on the condition of the Christians , Armenian and Greek Christian communities of Anatolia and Armenia . From 1877 to 1882, while undertaking four expeditions on behalf of the British Museum , Rassam made some important discoveries. Numerous finds of significance were transported to the museum, thanks to an agreement made with the Ottoman Sultan by Rassam's old colleague Austen Henry Layard, now Ambassador at Constantinople, allowing Rassam to return and continue their earlier excavations and to "pack and dispatch to England any antiquities [he] found ... provided, however, there were no duplicates." A representative of

760-821: A palace of Nebuchadnezzar II at Borsippa . In March 1879 at the site of the Esagila in Babylon, Rassam found the Cyrus Cylinder , the famous declaration of Cyrus the Great that was issued in 539 BCE to commemorate the Achaemenid Empire 's conquest of Babylonia . At Abu Habba in 1881, Rassam discovered the temple of the sun at Sippar . There he found a Cylinder of Nabonidus and the stone tablet of Nabu-apla-iddina of Babylon with its ritual bas-relief and inscription. Besides these, he discovered some 50,000 clay tablets containing

855-544: A political career. Rassam continued field work (1852–54) at Nimrud and Nineveh , where he made a number of important and independent discoveries. These included the clay tablets that would later be deciphered by George Smith as the Epic of Gilgamesh , the world's oldest written narrative poem. The tablets' description of a flood myth , written 1000 years prior to the earliest record of the Biblical story of Noah , caused much debate at

950-408: A raid. Another exemplar, found at Susa and inscribed a millennium later by Shutruk-Nakhunte is the statue composed of fragments fragments SB 47 (body) + SB 9099 (hands) said by Shutruk-Nakhunte to be of Manishtushu. "I am Shutruk-Nahhunte, son of Hallutush-Inshushinak, beloved servant of the god Inshushinak , king of Anshan and Susa, who has enlarged the kingdom, who takes care of the lands of Elam,

1045-455: A times when other excavators were beginning to act more responsibly. Rassam married Anne Eliza Price, an Englishwoman. They had seven children together. His eldest daughter, Theresa Rassam, born in 1871, became a professional singer who performed with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company . He also had a daughter, Annie Ferida Rassam, born in 1878. She gave birth secretly at seven months of pregnancy, on September 10, 1914, to Jeanne Ferida Rassam at

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1140-540: A vassal of Manishtushu and governor of Pashime . This is based on the discovery of a stele at Tell Abu Sheeja reading "For the God Shuda, Ilsu-rabi of Pashime, the soldier, brought in this statue. May the one who erases the name (on this inscription) not find an heir; may he not acquire a name (for himself)". Various bits and pieces of the statues and monuments of Manishtushu have been found. They are identified by contemporary inscriptions, by added later inscriptions (mostly in

1235-459: Is 144 centimeters in height (including a small plaster base added to the bottom to stabilize it). It has four inscribed sides (A-50 centimeters wide, B-45 centimeters wide, C-52 centimeters wide, and D-39 centimeters wide) which include a total of 76 columns of text with some lines at the top lost. The text is written in Akkadian language but with Sumerian orthography. This is the first written use of

1330-598: Is clear, while noting that the Ur III version of the Sumerian King List inverts the order of Rimush and Manishtushu. The absolute dates of their reigns are approximate (as with all dates prior to the Late Bronze Age collapse c. 1200 BC). The Akkadian Empire takes its name from the region and the city of Akkad, both of which were localized in the general confluence area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although

1425-530: Is not precise, and there are earlier Sumerian claimants. Epigraphic sources from the Sargonic (Akkadian Empire) period are in relatively short supply, partly because the capital Akkad , like the capitals of the later Mitanni and Sealand , has not yet been located, though there has been much speculation. Some cuneiform tablets have been excavated at cities under Akkadian Empire control such as Eshnunna and Tell Agrab . Other tablets have become available on

1520-441: Is the great city." Nimrod 's historical inspiration remains uncertain, but he has been identified with Sargon of Akkad by some scholars who also propose that the name of Sargon's grandson and successor Naram-Sin is the root of Nimrod's, while others have noted similarities between Nimrod and the legendary Gilgamesh , king of Uruk ( Erech ). Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in

1615-456: Is thought to be Akkadian continues to be in use into the Ur III period . There is a similar issue with cuneiform tablets. In the early Akkadian Empire tablets and the signs on them are much like those from earlier periods, before developing into the much different Classical Sargonic style. With the capital, Akkad, still unlocated, archaeological remains of the empire are still to be found, mainly at

1710-770: Is widely believed to be the first-known Middle Eastern and Assyrian archaeologist from the Ottoman empire. He emigrated to the United Kingdom , where he was naturalized as a British citizen, settling in Brighton . He represented the government as a diplomat , helping to free British diplomats from captivity in Ethiopia . Hormuzd Rassam was an ethnic Assyrian , born in Mosul in Upper Mesopotamia (now modern northern Iraq ), then part of

1805-526: The London Quarterly Review received Rassam's memoir of the Abyssinian crisis positively, acknowledged Rassam's qualifications for the mission and defended his actions under difficult circumstances: [I]t will remove any doubts that may still exist as to the origin of his mission, the wisdom of the selection of its chief, and the manner in which a task of extraordinary difficulty, delicacy, and danger

1900-459: The Amarna Period ) and Anatolia , to Persia ( Behistun ). The submission of some Sumerian rulers to the Akkadian Empire, is recorded in the seal inscriptions of Sumerian rulers such as Lugal-ushumgal , governor ( ensi ) of Lagash ("Shirpula"), circa 2230–2210 BC. Several inscriptions of Lugal-ushumgal are known, particularly seal impressions, which refer to him as governor of Lagash and at

1995-511: The Arabian Peninsula . The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests by its founder Sargon of Akkad . Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium . Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though the meaning of this term

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2090-630: The Ottoman Empire . His father was a member of the Chaldean Catholic Church where his grandfather, Anton Rassam , from Mosul, was the church's archdeacon. His mother Theresa was a daughter of Isaak Halabee of Aleppo , also then within the Ottoman Empire. Hormuzd's brother was British Vice-Consul in Mosul, which was how he obtained his start with Layard . At the age of 20 in 1846, Rassam

2185-688: The Sumerian king Lugal-zage-si at the Battle of Uruk and conquered his former territory, establishing the Akkadian Empire. Sargon was claimed to be the son of a gardener in the Sumerian King List . Later legends named his father as La'ibum or Itti-Bel and his birth mother as a priestess (or possibly even a hierodule ) of Ishtar , the Akkadian equivalent of the Sumerian goddess Inanna . One legend of Sargon from Neo-Assyrian times quotes him as saying My mother

2280-434: The status quo ante of local governance by city-states . Hormuzd Rassam Hormuzd Rassam ( Arabic : هرمز رسام ; Syriac : ܗܪܡܙܕ ܪܣܐܡ ; 1826 – 16 September 1910) was an Assyriologist and author. He is known for making a number of important archaeological discoveries from 1877 to 1882, including the clay tablets that contained the Epic of Gilgamesh , the world's oldest notable literature. He

2375-464: The talent measurement "3 talents 33 minas silver (as) the price of a field". A sample passage: "Field of E-kum and Zimanak; the field's border to the north is the field of An-za-ma-tim; the field's border to the west is the Abgal canal; the field's border to the south is the field of M.; the field's border to the east is the field of Mi-zu-a-NI-im." A number of locations and personal names are mentioned on

2470-440: The 1868 British Expedition to Abyssinia resolved the standoff by defeating the warlord and his army. Rassam's reputation was damaged in newspaper accounts because he was unfairly portrayed as ineffectual in dealing with the emperor. This reflected Victorian prejudices of the time against "Orientals". However, Rassam did have supporters, both in the press and especially in government amongst both Liberal and Tory ministers. In 1869,

2565-577: The Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform . Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in

2660-491: The Akkadian rulers have also been found. Most of the original examples are short, or very fragmentary like the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and the Sargonic victory stele from Telloh. A few longer ones are known because of later copies made, often from the much later Old Babylonian period. While these are assumed to be mostly accurate, it is difficult to know if they had been edited to reflect current political conditions. One of

2755-615: The Babylonian Collection of the Yale University and Baghdad Museum with a few others scattered about. The tablets date to the period of late in the reign of Naram-Sin to early in the reign of Shar-kali-shari. They are believed to be from a town between Umma and Lagash and Me-sag to be the governor of Umma. An archive of 47 tablets was found at the excavation of Tell el-Suleimah in the Hamrin Basin. Various royal inscriptions by

2850-521: The British Museum keeper E. A. Wallis Budge in the British courts for both slander and libel. Budge had written that Rassam had used "his relatives" to smuggle antiquities out of Nineveh and had only sent "rubbish" to the British Museum . The elderly Rassam was upset by these accusations. When he challenged Budge in court, he received a partial apology that a later court considered "ungentlemanly". Rassam

2945-513: The British excavations in 1853. Rawlinson alleged that he should receive the credit for the discovery of Ashurbanipal's palace himself. Rassam, he wrote, was just a "digger" who had overseen the work. In Rassam's defence, Layard wrote that he was, "one of the honestest and most straightforward fellows I ever knew, and one whose services have never been acknowledged". Rassam believed that the credit for some of his other discoveries had been taken by senior British Museum staff. In 1893 Rassam had sued

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3040-552: The Elamite language where the name was rendered Ma-an-iš-du-uz-z) and, somewhat more controversial, on stylistic and iconographic bases. An example is the combination of fragment SB 49 (stool) and SB 50 (legs), held at the Louvre Museum, sometimes referred to as the "throne of Manishtushu". It was found at Susa and carried an Elamite language inscription by ruler Shutruk-Nahhunte (c. 1184 to 1155 BC) who carried it away from Eshnunna after

3135-747: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Akkadian Empire The Akkadian Empire ( / ə ˈ k eɪ d i ən / )

3230-424: The Emperor established him at Qorata , a village on the south-eastern shores of Lake Tana, and sent him numerous gifts. The emperor sent the British consul Charles Duncan Cameron , the missionary Henry Aaron Stern , and the other hostages to his encampment. However, about this time Charles Tilstone Beke arrived at Massawa and forwarded letters from the hostages' families to Tewodros asking for their release. At

3325-484: The Foreign Office, and declared that he had acted throughout for the best, and that his prudence, discretion, and good management seem to have tended greatly to preserve the peace. [and secured] prisoners in the most serious risk... This ample recognition of his services, coming from so high and impartial a quarter, ought to afford ample compensation to Ram for the injustice and cruelty - we might almost say malignity - of

3420-596: The Royal Geographical Society of one of its older and more distinguished Fellows..." However, a modern account of the archaeology says that Layard leaving Rassam in charge of his excavations when he left in 1851 was "not perhaps the wisest choice, since Rassam continued, even into the 1880s, an extensive and essentially unrecorded simultaneous looting of a large number of sites not only in Assyria but in Babylonia, at

3515-622: The Sultan was instructed to be present at the dig to examine the objects as they were uncovered. In Assyria his chief finds were the Ashurnasirpal temple in Nimrud ( Calah ), the cylinder of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh , and two of the unique and historically important bronze strips from the Balawat Gates . He identified the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon with the mound known as Babil . He excavated

3610-450: The Sumerian city-states, and maintained meticulous records of his destructions. Most of the major Sumerian cities were destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous: Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (2269–2255 BC) succeeded him. The latter seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took control over their pre- Arab country, consisting of modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman . Despite

3705-713: The Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna ( Ishtar ), his patroness, and Zababa , the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The anointed priest of Anu " and "the great ensi of Enlil " and his daughter, Enheduanna , was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur . Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states: In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city) [but] he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their vast army. It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated

3800-467: The Umma region on epigraphic grounds, reads "In the year that Dūr-Maništusu was established". From this it is also known that a "fortress of Manishtusu" was built though the location is unknown. He became king in c. 2270 BC after the death of his brother Rimush . Manishtushu, freed of the rebellions of his brother's reign, led campaigns to distant lands. According to a passage from one of his inscriptions, he led

3895-561: The Vercingétorix clinic, 219 rue Vercingétorix, in the 14th arrondissement at Paris. The baby girl's alleged father was Sir John Arnold Wallinger, delegate of the secret services. Jeanne was adopted by a French couple, Monsieur and Madame André Courthial. Annie Ferida Rassam returned to Brighton a few months later. Rassam died on September 8, 1910, and was buried in Hove Cemetery. A number of personal effects relating to his career, including

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3990-552: The antiquities market and are held in museums and private collections such as those from the Akkadian governor in Adab . Internal evidence allows their dating to the Sargonic period and sometimes to the original location. Archives are especially important to historians and only a few have become available. The Me-sag Archive, which commenced publication in 1958, is considered one of the most significant collections. The tablets, about 500 in number with about half published, are held primarily at

4085-555: The attacks made upon his personal character and his public conduct, both in Parliament and the press, when he was in captivity and unable to reply or to defend himself. Queen Victoria presented him with a purse of £5,000 for services rendered as her envoy in the crisis. Rassam resumed his archaeological work, but did undertake other tasks for the British government in later years. During the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) , he undertook

4180-539: The cities where they established regional governors. An example is Adab where Naram-Sin established direct imperial control after Adab joined the "great revolt". After destroying the city of Mari the Akkadian Empire rebuilt it as an administrative center with an imperial governor. The city of Nuzi was established by the Akkadians and a number of economic and administrative texts were found there. Similarly, there are Marad , Nippur , Tutub and Ebla . Excavation at

4275-429: The city of Akkad has not yet been identified on the ground, it is known from various textual sources. Among these is at least one text predating the reign of Sargon. Together with the fact that the name Akkad is of non- Akkadian origin, this suggests that the city of Akkad may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times. The earliest records in the Akkadian language date to the time of Sargon of Akkad, who defeated

4370-595: The coastal area of Iran , Manishtushu had governors installed for the Akkadian Empire: Eshpum was in charge of Elam, while Ilshu-rabi was in charge of Pashime. An ellipsoidal axehead (copper or bronze) from the region of Elam (provenance is uncertain as it is in a private collection) reads "(For) Maništušu, king of Kiš, Māšum, the charioteer, his servant". This form of axehead is known from other examples and from Akkadian Empire iconography. A marble mace head found at Sippar (BM 91018) reads "Man-istusu, king of

4465-506: The confiscation of the wealth of other peoples. In later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name Akkad , together with Sumer , appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi , translating to "king of Sumer and Akkad". This title was assumed by the king who seized control of Nippur , the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia. During

4560-506: The cruciform monument have also been found. "I am Maništušu, son of Sargon, strong king, king of Kish, anointed of Anum, vicar of Enlil, viceroy of Aba, molder of countless bricks, shrine builder to Aya, the bride, my mistress I built a twelve-bur cloister (and) a horse for Šamaš and Aya, the bride, my mistress ... " The diorite obelisk, damaged at the top and bottom, was found at the site of Susa in Elam in 1897 by Jacques de Morgan . The origin of

4655-426: The drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and (fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship. Later claims made on behalf of Sargon were that his mother was an " entu " priestess (high priestess). The claims might have been made to ensure a pedigree of nobility, since only

4750-416: The earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty was thus ensured. Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in modern Afghanistan , the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Magan . This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket

4845-845: The fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made) the god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him. As for

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4940-462: The father of Nimrod ; he was the first on earth to become a mighty warrior. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; therefore it is said, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the Lord.” The beginning of his kingdom was Babel , Erech , and Accad , all of them in the land of Shinar . From that land he went into Assyria , and built Nineveh , Rehoboth-ir , Calah , and Resen between Nineveh and Calah; that

5035-514: The goddess Narunte." and a copper spear point found at Assur (VA 8300) read "Man-istusu, king of the world: Azuzu, his servant, dedicated (this spear) to the god Be'al-SI.SL". 𒈠𒀭𒅖𒌅𒋢 / 𒈗 / 𒆧 / 𒀹𒅗 / 𒀵𒋢 / 𒀀𒈾 / 𒀭𒈾𒊒𒋾 / 𒀀𒈬𒈾𒊒 " ma-an-iš-tu-su / lugal / kiš / eš 18 -pum / ARAD 2 -su / a-na / na-ru-ti / a mu-na-ru For Manishtushu king of Kish, Eshpum his servant, dedicated this statue to Narundi" In c. 2255 BC Manishtushu died, possibly assassinated by members of his own court, and

5130-483: The highways, the courier's boat no longer passed along the rivers. The Gutians drove the trusty (?) goats of Enlil out of their folds and compelled their herdsmen to follow them, they drove the cows out of their pens and compelled their cowherds to follow them. Prisoners manned the watch. Brigands occupied the highways. The doors of the city gates of the Land lay dislodged in mud, and all the foreign lands uttered bitter cries from

5225-624: The history of the Akkadian Empire. As an example, from one year-name, we know that the empire was in conflict with the Gutians long before its end. It attests the name of a Gutian ruler and marks the construction of two temples in Babylon as recognition of Akkadian victory. "In the year in which Szarkaliszarri laid the foundations of the temples of the goddess Annunitum and of the god Aba in Babylon and when he defeated Szarlak, king of Gutium" The final contemporary source are seals and their sealing dates. These are especially important here, as markers, with

5320-541: The least Beke's actions only made Tewodros suspicious. Rassam, writing in his memoirs of the incident, is more direct: "I date the change in the King's conduct towards me, and the misfortunes which eventually befell the members of the Mission and the old captives, from this day." The monarch suddenly changed his mind, and made Rassam a prisoner as well. The British hostages were held for two years until English and Indian troops under Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala in

5415-506: The long text of the obelisk. The fields being procured are noted as being around four cities, Dur-Sin, Girtab, Marda , and Kish , with only the location of Dur-Sin unknown in modern times. All lie in the general area of Babylon , Nippur , and Kish near the ancient course of the Euphrates river. One of the personal names mentioned on the obelisk is "(Son of) Ilshu-rabi, Governor of Pashime". It has been suggested that this refers to Ilshu-rabi ,

5510-591: The longer surviving examples is the Bassetki Statue , the copper base of a Narim-Sin statue: "Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of Agade, when the four quarters together revolted against him, through the love which the goddess Astar showed him, he was victorious in nine battles in one in 1 year, and the kings whom they (the rebels[?]) had raised (against him), he captured. In view of

5605-1619: The lord of the land of Elam. When the god Inshushinak gave me the order, I defeated Akkad . I took the stele of Manishtushu and carried it off, bringing it to the land of Elam." ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

5700-412: The main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to the carving of the "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the Louvre . Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia , battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti , Zipani of Kanesh , and 15 others. The economy

5795-436: The modern site of Tell Brak has suggested that the Akkadians rebuilt a city ("Brak" or "Nagar") on this site, for use as an administrative center. The city included two large buildings including a complex with temple, offices, courtyard, and large ovens. The Akkadian period is generally dated to 2334–2154 BC (according to the middle chronology ). The short-chronology dates of 2270–2083 BC are now considered less likely. It

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5890-422: The monument, considered a kudurru i.e. a land grant, is unknown though generally thought to be from Sippar based on locations mentioned in it and the fact that most texts carried back to Susa by the Elamites came from the Ebabbar temple of the god Shamash in Sippar. It is currently held in the Louvre Museum (SB 20). It records the purchase by Manishtushu of eight parcels of land totaling 3430 hectares. The kudurru

5985-434: The mountains those who do not resemble other people, who are not reckoned as part of the Land, the Gutians, an unbridled people, with human intelligence but canine instincts and monkeys' features. Like small birds they swooped on the ground in great flocks. Because of Enlil, they stretched their arms out across the plain like a net for animals. Nothing escaped their clutches, no one left their grasp. Messengers no longer traveled

6080-433: The one who removes this inscription, may the gods Samas, Astar, Nergal, the bailiff of the king, namely all those gods (mentioned above) tear out his foundations and destroy his progeny." A number of fragments of royal statues of Manishtushu all bearing portions of a "standard inscription". Aside from a few minor short inscriptions this is the only known contemporary source for this ruler. An excerpt: "Man-istusu, king of

6175-426: The presumed 40 Sargon year-names are known, 1 (presumed 9) of Rimush, 20 (presumed 56) of Naram-Sin, and 18 (presumed 18) of Shar-kali-shari. Recently, a single year-name had been found "In the year that Dūr-Maništusu was established.” There are also, perhaps, a dozen more known, which cannot be firmly linked to a ruler. Especially with the paucity of other inscriptions, year-names are extremely important in determining

6270-582: The previous religious belief that kings were only representatives of the people towards the gods. He also faced revolts at the start of his reign, but quickly crushed them. Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well as Armanum and its king. To better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah . Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king", where he instated garrisons to protect

6365-410: The quay of Agade" Before the Akkadian Empire, calendar years were marked by Regnal Numbers. During Sargonic times, a system of year-names was used. This practice continued until the end of the Old Babylonian period, for example, "Year in which the divine Hammu[rabi] the king Esznunna destroyed by a flood.” Afterwards, Regnal Numbers were used by all succeeding kingdoms. During the Akkadian Empire 3 of

6460-411: The quay of Agade. He fashioned a statue of himself (and) dedicated (it) to the god [Enlil]. By the gods Samas and Ilaba I swear that (these) are not falsehoods (but) are indeed true. As for the one who removes this inscription, may the gods Enlil and Samas tear out foundations and destroy his progeny. - Man-istusu, king of the world, dedicated (this object) to the god Enlil." An inscribed door socket

6555-454: The reign of his sons, where revolts broke out during the nine-year reign of Rimush (2278–2270 BC), who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. According to his inscriptions, he faced widespread revolts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur , Umma , Adab , Lagash , Der , and Kazallu from rebellious ensis : Rimush introduced mass slaughter and large scale destruction of

6650-453: The shortage of other Akkadian Empire epigraphics and very useful to historians. As an example, two seals and one sealing were found in the Royal Cemetery at Ur which contained the name of Sargons's daughter En-hedu-ana. This provided confirmation of her existence. The seals read "En-hedu-ana, daughter of Sargon: Ilum-pal[il] (is) her coiffeur" and "Adda, estate supervisor/majordomo of En-hedu-ana". At Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light

6745-501: The success, like his brother he seems to have been assassinated in a palace conspiracy. Manishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), due to vast military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin, king of the four-quarters " ( Lugal Naram-Sîn, Šar kibrat 'arbaim ), the four-quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DINGIR, Akkadian = ilu ) of Agade" (Akkad), in opposition to

6840-613: The surrounding regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus ( Kaptara ); northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda , well into Anatolia ); eastward over Elam ; and as far south as Magan ( Oman ) — a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "year-names" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing

6935-565: The temple accounts. After 1882, Rassam lived mainly in Brighton , England. He wrote about Assyro-Babylonian exploration, the ancient Christian peoples of the Near East , and current religious controversies in England. Rassam's discoveries attracted worldwide attention. The Italian Royal Academy of Sciences at Turin awarded him the Brazza prize of 12,000 francs for the four years from 1879 to 1882. He

7030-444: The time a vassal ( 𒀵 , arad , "servant" or "slave") of Naram-Sin, as well as his successor Shar-kali-sharri . One of these seals proclaims: “Naram-Sin, the mighty God of Agade, king of the four corners of the world, Lugal-ushumgal, the scribe, ensi of Lagash , is thy servant.” It can be considered that Lugal-ushumgal was a collaborator of the Akkadian Empire, as was Meskigal , ruler of Adab . Later however, Lugal-ushumgal

7125-647: The time about the Biblical narrative of ancient history. Rassam returned to England . With the help of Layard, he began a new career in government with a posting to the British Consulate in Aden , quickly rising to the post of First Political Resident and facilitating a number of agreements between the British and formerly hostile local community leaders. In 1866, an international crisis arose in Ethiopia when British missionaries were taken hostage by Emperor Tewodros II . England decided to send Rassam as an ambassador with

7220-472: The title of the position itself. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest. Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan , and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire". However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of

7315-547: The walls of their cities ..." There were a number of these, passed down as part of scribel tradition including The Birth Legend of Sargon (Neo-Assyrian), Weidner Chronicle, and the Geographical Treatise on Sargon of Akkad's Empire. Identifying architectural remains is hindered by the fact that there are sometimes no clear distinctions between features thought to stem from the preceding Early Dynastic period , and those thought to be Akkadian. Likewise, material that

7410-470: The whole cloth at the other. A few examples: "... By the verdict of the goddess Astar-Annunltum, Naram-Sin, the mighty, [was vic]torious over the Kisite in battle at TiWA. [Further], Ili-resi, the general; Ilum-muda, Ibbi-Zababa, Imtalik, (and) Puzur-Asar, captains of Kis; and Puzur-Ningal, governor of TiWA; Ili-re'a, his captain; Kullizum, captain of Eres; Edam'u, captain of Kutha ..." "...Enlil brought out of

7505-503: The world, dedicated (this mace) to the goddess Belat-Aia.". An alabaster mace head found at Isin (IB 1878 - Iraqi Museum number unknown), in the shrine of Ninurta of the Gula temple, reads "Man-istusu, king of the world, dedicated (this mace) to the goddess Ninisina.". Some inscriptions of the underlings of Manishtushu are known. A votive statue found at Susa reads "Man-istusu, king of the world: Espum, his servant, dedicated (this statue) to

7600-604: The world: when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum, had ... ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the Sea, thirty-two (in number), assembled for battle, but he was victorious (over them). Further, he conquered their cities, [st]ru[c]k down their rulers and aft[er] he [roused them (his troops)], plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded (it) on ships, and moored (the ships) at

7695-451: The world: when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum, had ... ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the Sea, thirty-two (in number), assembled for battle, but he was victorious (over them). Further, he conquered their cities, [st]ru[c]k down their rulers and aft[er] he [roused them (his troops)], plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded (it) on ships, and moored (the ships) at

7790-455: The years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak , king of Gutium . He also boasted of having subjugated the "four-quarters" — the lands surrounding Akkad to the north, the south (Sumer), the east (Elam), and the west ( Martu ). Some of the earliest historiographic texts ( ABC 19, 20 ) suggest he rebuilt the city of Babylon ( Bab-ilu ) in its new location near Akkad. Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to

7885-405: Was a changeling , my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates. My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki,

7980-563: Was discovered in 1881 by Hormuzd Rassam at Sippar. The monument mainly deals with the refurbishment of the Ebabbar temple in Sippar. It was assumed to be a legitimate Old Babylonian period copy of an Old Akkadian period monument. Later research showed that it was actually an Old Babylonian forgery. More recently, scholarship has dated the forging of the cruciform monument even later, to the Neo-Babylonian period . Several Late Babylonian copies of

8075-698: Was elected as a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society , the Society of Biblical Archaeology, and the Victoria Institute . Sir Henry Rawlinson , the "Father of Assyriology", was a linguist who was a key figure in the deciphering of cuneiform , also one of the trustees of the British Museum at the time of Rassam's later excavations. He had been British Consul in Baghdad at the time of Rassam's original excavations at Nineveh, and had been placed in charge of

8170-590: Was found at an unexcavated mound on the Adaim river near where it meets the Tigris river, Khara'ib Ghdairife. It read "Manistusu, king of Kis, builder of the temple of the goddess Ninhursaga in HA.A KI. Whoever removes this tablet, may Ninhursaga and Samas uproot his seed and destroy his progeny." In the early days of ancient Near Eastern archaeology a cross shaped (from above) monument of Manishtushu (BM 91022), inscribed in twelve columns,

8265-449: Was fully supported by the courts. Later archaeological evidence found in relation to artefacts such as the Balawat Gates at Dur-Sharrukin support Rassam's account of the dispute. By the end of his life, Rassam's reputation and achievements were once again receiving greater recognition, at least amidst his professional colleagues; in their obituary for Rassam, the Royal Geographical Society wrote: "The death of Mr Hormuzd Rassam... deprives

8360-410: Was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses. This newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and

8455-539: Was hired by British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard as a paymaster at Nimrud , a nearby ancient Assyrian excavation site. Layard, who was in Mosul on his first expedition (1845–47), was impressed by the hardworking Rassam and took him under his wing; they would remain friends for life. Layard provided an opportunity for Rassam to travel to England and study at Magdalen College, Oxford . He studied there for 18 months before accompanying Layard on his second expedition to Iraq (1849–51). Layard left archeology to begin

8550-448: Was performed...it [is] shown by Mr. Rassam that two successive Governments should have expressed their entire approval of his conduct Lord Stanley has done, that he is above party of a public officer who has been unjustly attacked and condemned; and in a letter to Mr. Rassam, laid before Parliament, he expressed the high sense entertained by Her Majesty's Government of his conduct during the difficult and arduous period of his employment under

8645-847: Was preceded by the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia (ED) and succeeded by the Ur III Period , although both transitions are blurry. For example, it is likely that the rise of Sargon of Akkad coincided with the late ED Period and that the final Akkadian kings ruled simultaneously with the Gutian kings alongside rulers at the city-states of both Uruk and Lagash . The Akkadian Period is contemporary with EB IV (in Israel ), EB IVA and EJ IV (in Syria), and EB IIIB (in Turkey ). The relative order of Akkadian kings

8740-500: Was succeeded by Puzer-Mama who, as Akkadian power waned, achieved independence from Shar-Kali-Sharri , assuming the title of "King of Lagash" and starting the illustrious Second Dynasty of Lagash. The empire of Akkad likely fell in the 22nd century BC, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a " Dark Age " with no prominent imperial authority until the Third Dynasty of Ur . The region's political structure may have reverted to

8835-668: Was succeeded by his son Naram-Sin . This supposed manner of his death is based on an Old Babylonian period extispicy omen text which reads "if the heart is like the testicle(s) of a sheep, it is an omen of Manishtushu, whom his palace killed". He held the title "King of Kish " in some of his inscriptions. The Manishtushu "standard inscription" is known from at least eight exemplars, statue fragments found at Nippur (CBS 19925), Sippar (BM 56630 and BM 56631), Susa (SB 51 and SB 15566), and Khafajah (KH II 162) as well as Old Babylonian tablet copies of Manishtushu inscriptions found at Nippur (CBS 13972 and NI 3200) and Ur (U 7725): "Man-istusu, king of

8930-542: Was the first known ancient empire of Mesopotamia , succeeding the long-lived civilization of Sumer . Centered on the city of Akkad ( / ˈ æ k æ d / ) and its surrounding region, the empire united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule and exercised significant influence across Mesopotamia, the Levant , and Anatolia , sending military expeditions as far south as Dilmun and Magan (modern United Arab Emirates , Saudi Arabia , Bahrain , Qatar and Oman ) in

9025-541: Was the rain-fed agricultural system and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production. Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in

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