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40-573: Maly Kundysh ( Mari : Изи Кундыш , Izi Kundyš , Russian : Малый Ку́ндыш , literally Little Kundysh ) is a river in Mari El , Russia , a left tributary of the Malaya Kokshaga . It is 107 km long, its drainage basin is 1310 km². This Mari El Republic location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in Southern Russia

80-450: A 'negative verb', much like Finnish does. The negative verb is more versatile than the negative verb in Finnish (see Finnish grammar ), existing in more grammatical tenses and moods. It has its own form in the present indicative, imperative and desiderative, and in the first preterite indicative. Other negations are periphrastic. The negation verb in its corresponding form is put in front of

120-511: A few specified exceptions, Article 111 of the Code stated that judicial hearings in the USSR should be held in public. Such protests against closed trials continued throughout the post-Stalin era. Andrei Sakharov , for example, did not travel to Oslo to receive his Nobel Peace Prize due to his public protest outside a Vilnius court building demanding access to the 1976 trial of Sergei Kovalev , an editor of

160-588: A political slogan for increased government transparency in the Soviet Union within the framework of perestroika , and the word came to be used in English in the latter meaning. In the Russian Empire of the late-19th century, the term was used in its direct meanings of "openness" and "publicity" and applied to politics and the judicial system . Some reforms were introduced towards reforms permitting attendance of

200-532: A separate morpheme to signify plurality . There are three particles, which are attached to the end of words with a hyphen, used to signify plural. Every grammatical person in Mari has its own possessive suffix . Additional particles, falling into none of the categories above, can be added to the very end of a word, giving it some additional meaning. For example, the suffix -ат (-at ), means 'also' or 'too'. The arrangement of suffixes varies from case to case. Although

240-553: A special letter "ҥ". The use of two "variants", as opposed to two "languages", has been debated: Maris recognize the unity of the ethnic group, and the two forms are very close, but distinct enough to cause some problems with communication. The Mari language and people were known as "Cheremis" ( Russian : черемисы, черемисский язык , cheremisy , cheremisskiy yazyk ). In medieval texts the variant forms Sarmys and Tsarmys are also found, as well as Tatar : Чирмеш , romanized:  Çirmeş ; and Chuvash : Ҫармӑс , Śarmăs before

280-546: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mari language Mari is the titular and official language of its republic, alongside Russian . The Mari language today has three standard forms: Hill Mari , Northwestern Mari , and Meadow Mari . The latter is predominant and spans the continuum Meadow Mari to Eastern Mari from the Republic into the Ural dialects of Bashkortostan , Sverdlovsk Oblast and Udmurtia ), whereas

320-404: Is a concept relating to openness and transparency. It has several general and specific meanings, including a policy of maximum openness in the activities of state institutions and freedom of information and the inadmissibility of hushing up problems. In Russian, the word glasnost has long been used to mean 'openness' and 'transparency'. In the mid-1980s, it was popularised by Mikhail Gorbachev as

360-463: Is divided into their own smaller local subdialects. Only Hill and Meadow Mari have their own literary written standard varieties, based on the dialects of Kozmodemyansk and Yoshkar-Ola respectively. Eastern and Meadow Mari are often united as a Meadow-Eastern supra-dialect . Northwestern Mari is transitional between the Hill and Meadow dialects, and its phonology and morphology are closer to Hill Mari. Mari

400-459: Is formed with the suffix -рак (-rak). The superlative is formed by adding the word эн (en) in front. Morphologically, conjugation follows three tenses and three moods in Meadow Mari. In Meadow Mari, verbs can conjugate according to two conjugation types. These differ from each other in all forms but the infinitive and the third-person plural of the imperative. Unfortunately, the infinitive

440-570: Is mostly written with the Cyrillic script . The schwa /ə/ and its fronted counterpart are usually transcribed in Finno-Ugric transcription as ə̑ (reduced mid unrounded vowel) and ə (reduced front unrounded vowel) respectively. The former has sometimes been transcribed in IPA as / ɤ / , but phonetically the vowel is most strongly distinguished by its short duration and reduced quality. Descriptions vary on

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480-493: Is the form denoted in dictionaries and word lists. It is, thus, necessary to either mark verb infinitives by their conjugation type in word lists, or to include a form in which the conjugation class is visible—usually, the first-person singular present, which ends in -ам (or -ям) for verbs in the first category, and in -ем (or -эм) for second-type verbs. The three tenses of Mari verbs are: Additional tenses can be formed through periphrasis . The moods are: Negation in Mari uses

520-640: The Chronicle of Current Events and prominent rights activist. In 1986, Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and his advisers adopted glasnost as a political slogan, together with the term perestroika . Alexander Yakovlev , Head of the Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , is considered to be the intellectual force behind Gorbachev's reform program. Glasnost

560-631: The Krupskaya Teachers' Training Institute (Yoshkar-Ola), more than half of the subjects are taught in Mari. However, by 2024, only 9% of ethnic Mari children where being taught Mari in just 81 schools. The principal division between Mari varieties is the West and the East. According to the Soviet linguist Kovedyaeva (1976:9-15, 1993:163-164) the Mari macrolanguage is divided into four main dialects: Each main dialect

600-539: The Russian Revolution . The term Mari comes from the Maris' autonym марий ( mari ). Most Maris live in rural areas with slightly more than a quarter living in cities. In the republic's capital, Yoshkar-Ola , the percentage of Maris is just over 23 percent. At the end of the 1980s (per the 1989 census) Maris numbered 670,868, of whom 80% (542,160) claimed Mari as their first language and 18.8% did not speak Mari. In

640-532: The 1990s opened opportunities for a revival of efforts expand the use of Mari in education and the public sphere. In the 1990s, the Mari language, alongside Russian, was proclaimed in the republican constitution to be an official language of Mari El. By the beginning of the 21st century, Mari language and literature was taught in 226 schools. At the History and Philology Department of the Mari State University and

680-577: The Communist period: the 1926 census indicated more than 99% of Maris considered Mari their first language, declining to less than 81% in 1989. Some qualitative evidence of a reversal in recent years has been noted. There was no state support for Mari language in Imperial Russia , and with the exception of some enthusiasts and numerous ecclesiastical texts by the Russian Orthodox Church , there

720-604: The Mari Republic, 11.6% claimed Mari was not their first language. In a survey by the Mari Research Institute more than three quarters of Maris surveyed considered Mari language to be the most crucial marker of ethnic identity, followed by traditional culture (61%) and common historical past (22%), religion (16%), character and mentality (15%) and appearance (11%) (see Glukhov and Glukhov for details). A gradual downward trend towards assimilation to Russian has been noted for

760-461: The Soviet Union and the West. Gorbachev's interpretation of "glasnost" can best be summarised in English as "openness". While associated with freedom of speech , the main goal of this policy was to make the country's management transparent, and circumvent the holding of near-complete control of the economy and bureaucracy of the Soviet Union by a concentrated body of officials and bureaucratic personnel. During Glasnost, Soviet history under Stalin

800-558: The USSR, glasnost was frequently linked with other generalised concepts such as perestroika (literally: restructuring or regrouping) and demokratizatsiya (democratisation). Gorbachev often appealed to glasnost when promoting policies aimed at reducing corruption at the top of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, and moderating the abuse of administrative power in the Central Committee . The ambiguity of "glasnost" defines

840-598: The United States and Western Europe began to be transmitted to the Soviet population, along with western popular culture. Glasnost received mixed reception in communist states, especially outside the Eastern Bloc . Glasnost had a trickle-down effect on Eastern Europe and led to democratic reforms, namely in Poland and Czech Republic. Glasnost and similar reforms were applied in the following communist states: Furthermore, in

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880-406: The case suffixes are after the possessive suffixes in the genitive and the accusative, the opposite is the case for the locative cases. In the dative, both arrangements are possible. There are many other arrangements in the plural—the position of the plural particle is flexible. The arrangement here is one commonly used possibility. Comparison happens with adjectives and adverbs. The comparative

920-450: The degree of backness and labialization. The mid vowels /e/ , /ø/ , /o/ have more reduced allophones [e̽] , [ø̽] , [o̽] at the end of a word. Stress is not phonemic in Mari, but a dynamic stress system is exhibited phonetically, the stressed syllable being higher in pitch and amplitude and greater in length than an unstressed syllable. Generally, there is one prominent syllable per word and prominence may be found in any syllable of

960-539: The distinctive five-year period (1986–1991) at the end of the USSR's existence. There was decreasing pre-publication and pre-broadcast censorship and greater freedom of information . The "Era of Glasnost" saw greater contact between Soviet citizens and the Western world, particularly the United States: restrictions on travel were loosened for many Soviet citizens which further eased pressures on international exchange between

1000-495: The emergence of the Soviet civil rights movement. Protesters on Pushkin Square led by Alexander Yesenin-Volpin demanded access to the closed trial of Yuly Daniel and Andrei Sinyavsky . The protestors made specific requests for "glasnost", herein referring to the specific admission of the public, independent observers and foreign journalists, to the trial that had been legislated in the then newly issued Code of Criminal Procedure. With

1040-590: The former, Hill Mari, shares a stronger affiliation with the Northwestern dialect (spoken in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and parts of the Kirov Oblast ). Both language forms use modified versions of Cyrillic script . For the non-native, Hill Mari, or Western Mari, can be recognized by its use of the special letters "ӓ" and "ӹ" in addition to the shared letters "ӱ" and "ӧ", while Eastern and Meadow Mari utilize

1080-481: The mass media. Some critics, especially among legal reformers and dissidents, regarded the Soviet authorities' new slogans as vague and limited alternatives to more basic liberties. Alexei Simonov, president of the Glasnost Defence Foundation, makes a critical definition of the term in suggesting it was "a tortoise crawling towards Freedom of Speech". Between 1986 and 1991, during an era of reforms in

1120-407: The negated verb in its second-person singular (the stem-only form), much as it is in Finnish and Estonian . The verb улаш (ulaš) – to be – has its own negated forms. In order to illustrate the conjugation in the respective moods and times, one verb of the first declination (лекташ – to go) and one verb of the second declination (мондаш – to forget) will be used. Verbs have two infinitive forms:

1160-620: The position of the verb is not affected. The focus position is directly before the verb. Subjects, objects, adverbial, and secondary predicate can appear in this position. The examples below quoted in Saarinen (2022) show the different elements that can appear in the focus position. 1PST:first preterite 2PST:second preterite Чачи t͡ɕɑt͡ɕi Chachi корно korno road мучко mut͡ɕko Glasnost Glasnost ( / ˈ ɡ l æ z n ɒ s t / GLAZ -nost ; Russian: гласность , IPA: [ˈɡlasnəsʲtʲ] )

1200-450: The press and the public at trials. After some liberalization under Alexander II of Russia , the openness of trials started to be restricted again. Human rights activist Lyudmila Alexeyeva writes that the word glasnost has been in the Russian language for several hundred years as a common term: "It was in the dictionaries and lawbooks as long as there had been dictionaries and lawbooks. It

1240-862: The socialist state of Yugoslavia , similar reforms also existed, with the first major reforms beginning in Slovenia . Glasnost or similar reforms were not applied in the following communist states: The outright prohibition of censorship was enshrined in Article 29 of the new 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation . This however has been the subject of ongoing controversy in contemporary Russia owing to heightened governmental interventions restricting access to information for Russian citizens, including internet censorship . There has also been pressure on government-operated media outlets to not publicize or discuss certain events or subjects in recent years. Monitoring of

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1280-561: The standard infinitive and the necessive infinitive, used when a person must do something. The person needing to do something is put in the dative in such a situation. There are four participles in Meadow Mari: There are five gerunds in Meadow Mari: Word order in Mari is subject–object–verb . This means that the object appears directly before the predicate. Word order in Mari is affected by information structure. However,

1320-462: The stressed vowel in the word is rounded , then the suffix will contain a rounded vowel: for example, кӱтӱ́ ([kyˈty] 'herd') becomes кӱтӱ́штӧ ([kyˈtyʃtø], 'in the herd'); if the stressed vowel is unrounded, then the suffix will contain an unrounded vowel: ки́д ([kid], 'hand') becomes ки́дыште ([ˈkidəʃte], 'in the hand'). If the stressed vowel is back, then the suffix will end in a back vowel: агу́р ([aˈgur], 'whirlpool') becomes агу́рышто ([aˈgurəʃto], 'in

1360-418: The whirlpool'). Like other Uralic languages , Mari is an agglutinating language . It lacks grammatical gender, and does not use articles. Meadow Mari has 9 productive cases , of which 3 are locative cases . The usage of the latter ones is restricted to inanimate objects. Many cases, aside from their basic function, are used in other situations, such as in expressions of time. If a locative statement

1400-533: The word. Post- and prefixes behave as clitics , i.e., they do not have their own stress. For example, пӧ́рт ( pört , "house") гыч ( gəč , "out of") ( [ˈpørt ɣɤt͡ʃ] ); or му́ро ( muro , "song") дене ( dene , "with") ( [ˈmuro ðene] ). Consonants are shown in Cyrillic, Latin, and the IPA : Like several other Uralic languages, Mari has vowel harmony . In addition to front/back harmony, Mari also features round/unround harmony. If

1440-510: Was almost no education in Mari language. After the October Revolution , there was a period of support of all lesser national cultures in the Soviet Union , but eventually Russification returned. While the development of Mari literary language continued, still, only elementary-school education was available in Mari in the Soviet period, with this policy ending in village schools in the 1970–1980s. The period of glasnost and perestroika in

1480-557: Was an ordinary, hardworking, non-descript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice or governance, being conducted in the open." In the mid-1960s it acquired a revived topical importance in discourse about the necessity of changing the Cold War era internal policy of the Soviet Union. On 5 December 1965 the Glasnost rally took place in Moscow, considered to be a key event in

1520-417: Was re-examined; censored literature in the libraries was made more widely available; and there was a greater freedom of speech for citizens and openness in the media. It was in the late 1980s when most people in the Soviet Union began to learn about the atrocities of Stalin, and learned about previously suppressed events. Information about the supposedly higher quality of consumer goods and quality of life in

1560-455: Was taken to mean increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union (USSR). Glasnost reflected a commitment of the Gorbachev administration to allowing Soviet citizens to discuss publicly the problems of their system and potential solutions. Gorbachev encouraged popular scrutiny and criticism of leaders, as well as a certain level of exposure by

1600-475: Was to be made about an animate object, postpositions would be used. Additionally, terms denoting family members have vocative forms. These are, however, not created with a specific paradigm, and only exist in a few pre-defined cases. Hill Mari has these cases, plus the abessive case (of the form -де), which is used to form adverbials stating without the involvement or influence of which an action happens. Mari, though an agglutinative language, does not have

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