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54-559: The Pandidakterion was refounded in 1046 by Constantine IX Monomachos who created the Departments of Law (Διδασκαλεῖον τῶν Νόμων) and Philosophy (Γυμνάσιον). At the time various economic schools, colleges, polytechnics, libraries and fine arts academies also operated in the city of Constantinople. Byzantine society on the whole was an educated one. Primary education was widely available, sometimes even at village level and uniquely in that era for both sexes. Female participation in culture

108-515: A husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian . The couple shared the throne with Zoë's sister Theodora Porphyrogenita . Zoë died in 1050, and Constantine continued his collaboration with Theodora until his own death five years later. Constantine waged wars against groups which included the Kievan Rus' ,

162-482: A variety of formats for rendering Greek and Greek shorthand using Latin letters. Examples include "8elo" and "thelw" for θέλω , "3ava" for ξανά , and "yuxi" for ψυχή . Owing to the difficulties encountered in transliterating and transcribing both ancient and modern Greek into the Latin alphabet, a number of regulatory bodies have been established. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT), in cooperation with

216-590: A variety of romanizations for names and placenames in the 19th and 20th century. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT) issued its system in cooperation with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1983. This system was adopted (with minor modifications) by the United Nations ' Fifth Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names at Montreal in 1987, by

270-708: A year before Constantine's death, the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches took place, culminating in Pope Leo IX excommunicating the Patriarch Michael Keroularios . Constantine, aware of the political and religious consequences of such a disunion, made unsuccessful efforts to prevent the breach. Constantine Monomachos was the son of Theodosios Monomachos, an important bureaucrat under Basil II and Constantine VIII , of

324-444: A établi l'"université de Constantinople", avec 31 professeurs rémunérés par l'État qui jouissaient du monopole des cours publics. Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos ( Medieval Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος , romanized :  Kōnstantinos Monomachos ; c. 980 / c. 1000 – 11 January 1055) reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita chose him as

378-410: Is common to mark the long vowels with macrons over the Latin letters and to leave the short vowels unmarked; such macrons should not be confused or conflated with those used by some systems to mark eta and omega as distinct from epsilon , iota , and omicron . Greece's early Attic numerals were based on a small sample of letters (including heta ) arranged in multiples of 5 and 10, likely forming

432-673: Is shaped like the Latinate semicolon . Greek punctuation which has been given formal romanizations include: There are many archaic forms and local variants of the Greek alphabet . Beta , for example, might appear as round Β or pointed [REDACTED] throughout Greece but is also found in the forms [REDACTED] (at Gortyn ), [REDACTED] and [REDACTED] ( Thera ), [REDACTED] ( Argos ), [REDACTED] ( Melos ), [REDACTED] ( Corinth ), [REDACTED] ( Megara and Byzantium ), and even [REDACTED] ( Cyclades ). Well into

486-423: The pronoia system, a sort of Byzantine feudal contract in which tracts of land (or the tax revenue from it) were granted to particular individuals in exchange for contributing to and maintaining military forces. Constantine could be wasteful with the imperial treasury. On one occasion he is said to have sent an Arab leader 500,000 gold coins, over two tons of gold. In 1054 the centuries-old differences between

540-595: The Balkans and was about to defeat Constantine's army in battle, when he was wounded and died on the field, ending the crisis in 1043. Immediately after the victory, Constantine was attacked by a fleet from Kievan Rus' ; it is "incontrovertible that a Rus' detachment took part in the Maniakes rebellion". They too were defeated, with the help of Greek fire . As part of the peace negotiations, Constantine married his daughter, Anastasia (by his second wife or Maria Skleraina), to

594-550: The Balkans , and in 1048 the area was raided by the Pechenegs , who continued to plunder it for the next five years. The emperor's efforts to contain the enemy through diplomacy merely exacerbated the situation, as rival Pecheneg leaders clashed on Byzantine ground, and Pecheneg settlers were allowed to live in compact settlement in the Balkans, making it difficult to suppress their rebellion. Constantine seems to have taken recourse to

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648-460: The Church many objects of great value, including precious sacred vessels, "that surpassed by far all the others as to dimensions, beauty and price". Constantine also showed clemency and mercy, even in cases of treason. Romanization of Medieval Greek Romanization of Greek is the transliteration ( letter -mapping) or transcription ( sound -mapping) of text from the Greek alphabet into

702-601: The Eastern and Western churches led to their final separation . Legates from Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios when Keroularios would not agree to adopt western church practices, and in return Keroularios excommunicated the legates. This sabotaged Constantine's attempts to ally with the Pope against the Normans , who had taken advantage of

756-538: The Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and was refounded as the Phanar Greek Orthodox College . The primary University of the city became a madrasa (now Istanbul University ), established by Mehmet II following the conquest of the city. Both of these institutions are still operational today. Matthaios Kamariotis , lecturer of the university, became the first director of Phanar Greek Orthodox College , which

810-580: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), released a system in 1983 which has since been formally adopted by the United Nations , the United Kingdom and United States. The following tables list several romanization schemes from the Greek alphabet to modern English. Note, however, that the ELOT, UN, and ISO formats for Modern Greek intend themselves as translingual and may be applied in any language using

864-479: The Latin alphabet . The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Ancient or Medieval Greek" system for all works and authors up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although Byzantine Greek was pronounced distinctly and some have considered "Modern" Greek to have begun as early as the 12th century. For treatment of polytonic Greek letters —for example, ᾤ —see also

918-990: The Latin alphabet . The conventions for writing and romanizing Ancient Greek and Modern Greek differ markedly. The sound of the English letter B ( /b/ ) was written as β in ancient Greek but is now written as the digraph μπ , while the modern β sounds like the English letter V ( /v/ ) instead. The Greek name Ἰωάννης became Johannes in Latin and then John in English, but in modern Greek has become Γιάννης ; this might be written as Yannis , Jani, Ioannis, Yiannis, or Giannis, but not Giannes or Giannēs as it would be for ancient Greek. The word Άγιος might variously appear as Hagiοs, Agios, Aghios, or Ayios, or simply be translated as " Holy " or " Saint " in English forms of Greek placenames . Traditional English renderings of Greek names originated from Roman systems established in antiquity. The Roman alphabet itself

972-594: The Pandidakterion was to educate civil servants for the administration of the state. The main content of higher education for most students was rhetoric, philosophy and law with the aim of producing competent, learned personnel to staff the bureaucratic postings of state and church. In this sense the university was the secular equivalent of the Theological Schools. The university maintained an active philosophical tradition of Platonism and Aristotelianism , with

1026-606: The Pechenegs and, in the East, the rising Seljuq Turks . Despite the varying success of these campaigns, the Byzantine Empire largely retained the borders established after the conquests of Basil II ( r.  976–1025 ), even expanding eastwards when Constantine annexed the wealthy Armenian kingdom of Ani . Constantine accordingly may be considered the last effective emperor during the Macedonian Renaissance . In 1054,

1080-622: The first letter of the pair indicates vowels which should be taken (and romanized) separately. Although the second vowel is not marked with a superfluous diaeresis in Greek, the first-edition ELOT 743 and the UN systems place a diaeresis on the Latin vowel for the sake of clarity. Apart from the diacritical marks native to Greek itself or used to romanize its characters, linguists also regularly mark vowel length with macrons (  ¯  ) marking long vowels and rounded breves (  ˘  ) marking short vowels . Where these are romanized, it

1134-512: The section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below. ELOT approved in 1982 the ELOT 743 standard, revised in 2001, whose Type 2 (Greek: Τύπος 2 , romanized:  Typos 2 ) transcription scheme has been adopted by the Greek and Cypriot governments as standard for romanization of names on Greek and Cypriot passports . It also comprised a Type 1 (Greek: Τύπος 1 , romanized:  Typos 1 ) transliteration table, which

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1188-410: The transcriptions of Modern Greek into Latin letters used by ELOT, UN and ISO are essentially equivalent, while there remain minor differences in how they approach reversible transliteration . The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Modern Greek" system for all works and authors following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. In the table below,

1242-760: The Byzantines first came into contact with the Seljuk Turks . They met in battle in Armenia in 1048 and settled a truce the following year. Even if the Seljuk rulers were willing to abide by the treaty, their unruly Turcoman allies showed much less restraint. The Byzantine forces would suffer a cataclysmic defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Constantine began persecuting the Armenian Church , trying to force it into union with

1296-627: The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had been substantially destroyed in 1009 by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah . Byzantine Emperor Romanos III had secured the right to undertake such a restoration in a treaty with al-Hakim's son al-Zahir , but it was Constantine who finally set the project in motion, funding the reconstruction of the Church and other Christian establishments in the Holy Land. Constantine

1350-602: The Orthodox Church. In 1046, he refounded the University of Constantinople by creating the Departments of Law and Philosophy . In 1047, Constantine was faced by the rebellion of his nephew Leo Tornikios , who gathered supporters in Adrianople and was proclaimed emperor by the army. Tornikios was forced to retreat, failed in another siege, and was captured during his flight. The revolt had weakened Byzantine defenses in

1404-662: The United Kingdom's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN) and by the United States' Board on Geographic Names (BGN) in 1996, and by the ISO itself in 1997. Romanization of names for official purposes (as with passports and identity cards) were required to use the ELOT system within Greece until 2011, when a legal decision permitted Greeks to use irregular forms (such as " Demetrios " for Δημήτριος ) provided that official identification and documents also list

1458-474: The citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to harming Constantine as he participated in a religious procession . The mob was only quieted by the appearance at a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of regicide . In 1045, Constantine annexed the Armenian kingdom of Ani , but this expansion merely exposed the empire to new enemies. In 1046

1512-436: The classical Greek alphabet such as heta ( Ͱ & ͱ ), meanwhile, usually take their nearest English equivalent (in this case, h ) but are too uncommon to be listed in formal transliteration schemes. Uncommon Greek letters which have been given formal romanizations include: The sounds of Modern Greek have diverged from both those of Ancient Greek and their descendant letters in English and other languages. This led to

1566-522: The communities of masters and students that came to define the institutional character of European universities. Nonetheless, the Dictionnaire encyclopédique du Moyen Âge also identifies the Pandidakterion founded in 425 as a "university institution". Universities, Byzantine. The medieval Greek world knew no autonomous and continuing institutions of higher education comparable to the universities of

1620-410: The disappearance of Maniakes to take over Southern Italy . Constantine tried to intervene, but he fell ill and died on 11 January of the following year. He was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of the elderly Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII, and to pass the throne to the doux of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon . However, Theodora

1674-455: The eye of Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita , he was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Emperor Michael IV . The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece . However, before he could commence his appointment, Constantine was summoned to Constantinople , where

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1728-498: The famous and noble Monomachos family . His mother and her name are unknown. Constantine was born around 980 or 1000 in Antioch . At some point Constantine's father Theodosios had been suspected of conspiracy, and his son's career suffered accordingly. Constantine's position improved after he married his second wife, sometimes called Helena or Pulcheria, a daughter of Basil Skleros , and niece of Emperor Romanos III Argyros . Catching

1782-404: The first rather than the second vowel letter, or by having a diaeresis ( ¨ ) over the second letter. For treatment of accents and diaereses —for example, ϊ —also see the section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below. The traditional polytonic orthography of Greek uses several distinct diacritical marks to render what was originally the pitch accent of Ancient Greek and

1836-500: The former being the longest unbroken Platonic school, running for close to two millennia until the 15th century. The School of Magnaura was founded in the 9th century but did not last very long, and in the 11th new schools of philosophy and law were established at the Capitol School. The period of decline began with the Latin conquest of 1204 although the university survived as a non-secular institution under Church management until

1890-442: The fragile working relationship between Michael V's successors, Empresses Zoë and Theodora Porphyrogenita , was breaking down. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby hoping to prevent her sister from increasing her popularity and authority. After her first preference displayed contempt for the empress and her second died under mysterious circumstances, Zoë remembered

1944-463: The future Prince Vsevolod I of Kiev , the son of his opponent Yaroslav I the Wise . Constantine's family name Monomachos ("one who fights alone") was inherited by Vsevolod and Anastasia's son, Vladimir II Monomakh . Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Maria Skleraina in the early part of his reign led to rumors that she was planning to murder Zoë and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by

1998-473: The handsome and urbane Constantine. The pair were married on 11 June, without the participation of Patriarch Alexius of Constantinople , who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). Constantine was crowned on the following day. Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court. The new emperor was pleasure-loving and prone to violent outbursts on suspicion of conspiracy. He

2052-590: The inspiration for the later Etruscan and Roman numerals . This early system was replaced by Greek numerals which employed the entire alphabet, including the nonstandard letters digamma , stigma , or sigma-tau (placed between epsilon and zeta), koppa (placed between pi and rho), and sampi (placed after omega). As revised in 2001, ELOT 743 provides for the uncommon characters to be given (in Greek) as $ for stigma, + for koppa, and / for sampi. These symbols are not given lower-case equivalents. When used as numbers,

2106-489: The later Middle Ages in Western Europe . Le nom "université" désigne au Moyen Âge occidental une organisation corporative des élèves et des maîtres, avec ses fonctions et privilèges, qui cultive un ensemble d'études supérieures. L'existence d'une telle institution est fort contestée pour Byzance. Seule l'école de Constantinople sous Théodose Il peut être prise pour une institution universitaire. Par la loi de 425, l'empereur

2160-763: The letters are used in combination with the upper keraia numeral sign ⟨ ʹ ⟩ to denote numbers from 1 to 900 and in combination with the lower keraia ⟨ ͵ ⟩ to denote multiples of 1000. ( For a full table of the signs and their values, see Greek numerals .) These values are traditionally romanized as Roman numerals , so that Αλέξανδρος Γ' ο Μακεδών would be translated as Alexander III of Macedon and transliterated as Aléxandros III o Makedṓn rather than Aléxandros G' or Aléxandros 3 . Greek laws and other official documents of Greece which employ these numerals, however, are to be formally romanized using "decimal" Arabic numerals . Ancient Greek text did not mark word division with spaces or interpuncts , instead running

2214-528: The modern period, classical and medieval Greek was also set using a wide array of ligatures , symbols combining or abbreviating various sets of letters, such as those included in Claude Garamond 's 16th-century grecs du roi . For the most part, such variants—as ϖ and [REDACTED] for π , ϛ for σ τ , and ϗ for και —are just silently emended to their standard forms and transliterated accordingly. Letters with no equivalent in

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2268-418: The presence or absence of word-initial /h/ . In 1982, monotonic orthography was officially introduced for modern Greek. The only diacritics that remain are the acute accent (indicating stress) and the diaeresis (indicating that two consecutive vowels should not be combined). When a Greek diphthong is accented, the accent mark is placed over the second letter of the pair. This means that an accent over

2322-495: The sound: ⟨th⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, and ⟨ch⟩. Because English orthography has changed so much from the original Greek , modern scholarly transliteration now usually renders ⟨κ⟩ as ⟨k⟩ and the diphthongs ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩. " Greeklish " has also spread within Greece itself, owing to the rapid spread of digital telephony from cultures using the Latin alphabet . Since Greek typefaces and fonts are not always supported or robust, Greek email and chatting has adopted

2376-427: The special rules for vowel combinations ( αι, αυ, ει, ευ, ηυ, οι, ου, ωυ ) only apply when these letters function as digraphs . There are also words where the same letters stand side by side incidentally but represent separate vowels. In these cases each of the two letters is transcribed separately according to the normal rules for single letters. Such cases are marked in Greek orthography by either having an accent on

2430-463: The words together ( scripta continua ). In the Hellenistic period, a variety of symbols arose for punctuation or editorial marking ; such punctuation (or the lack thereof) are variously romanized, inserted, or ignored in different modern editions. Modern Greek punctuation generally follows French with the notable exception of Greek's use of a separate question mark , the erotimatiko , which

2484-601: Was a form of the Cumaean alphabet derived from the Euboean script that valued Χ as / k s / and Η as / h / and used variant forms of Λ and Σ that became L and S . When this script was used to write the classical Greek alphabet, ⟨κ⟩ was replaced with ⟨c⟩, ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ became ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ were simplified to ⟨i⟩ (more rarely—corresponding to an earlier pronunciation—⟨e⟩) and ⟨u⟩. Aspirated consonants like ⟨θ⟩, ⟨φ⟩, initial-⟨ρ⟩, and ⟨χ⟩ simply wrote out

2538-447: Was established in 1454. The Pandidakterion refounded in 1046 is generally recognized as a " university " in that it was, like modern universities, an institution of higher learning with chairs in many fields of study, but some scholars have argued that it was not a "university" because it lacked the corporative structure of the medieval universities of Western Europe, which used the Latin term universitas magistrorum et scholarium for

2592-470: Was extensively modified in the second edition of the standard. International versions of ELOT 743, with an English language standard document, were approved by the UN (V/19, 1987) and the British and American governments. The ISO approved in 1997 its version, ISO 843 , with a different Type 1 transliteration system, which was adopted four years later by ELOT itself, while the U.N. did not update its version. So

2646-528: Was heavily influenced by his controversial wife or mistress, Maria Skleraina , a relative of his second wife, and Maria's family. Constantine had another mistress, an " Alan princess", Gurandukht , likely the daughter of George I . In August 1042 Constantine relieved the general George Maniakes from his command in Italy , and Maniakes rebelled, declaring himself emperor in September. He transferred his troops into

2700-570: Was high. Scholarship was fostered not only in Constantinople but also in institutions operated in such major cities as Antioch and Alexandria . The original school, named Pandidakterion , was founded in 425 by Emperor Theodosius II in the Capitolium of Constantinople with 31 chairs: 10 each for Greek and Latin grammar; two for law; one for philosophy; and eight chairs for rhetoric, with five taught in Greek and three in Latin. The sole purpose of

2754-406: Was in his prime, before his limbs lost their virility, anyone who cared to look at him closely would surely have likened his head to the sun in its glory, so radiant was it, and his hair to the rays of the sun, while in the rest of his body he would have seen the purest and most translucent crystal. " Immediately upon ascending to the throne in 1042, Constantine IX set about restoring the Church of

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2808-558: Was praised for his justice and wisdom, the latter being displayed through his patronage of philosophy and rhetoric, as well as his legislation. Indeed, during his reign there was a "rennaisance" of interest in ancient Greek philosophy . His personality has been described as good-natured; he was easily amused and loved to laugh. He charmed practically everyone who knew him, especially Zoë, whom he enthralled immediately. Constantine spent money without restraints and liked to make several luxurious gifts to his associates. For example, he gave to

2862-452: Was recalled from her retirement and named empress. The literary circle at the court of Constantine IX included the philosopher and historian Michael Psellos , whose Chronographia records the history of Constantine's reign. Psellos left a physical description of Constantine in his Chronographia : he was " ruddy as the sun, but all his breast, and down to his feet... [were] colored the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. When he

2916-533: Was said to rival Achilles and Nireus in terms of beauty. He was described by Michael Psellos as " a marvel of beauty that Nature brought into being in the person of this man, so justly proportioned, so harmoniously fashioned, that there was no one in our time to compare to him ". Psellos described "the symmetry of the emperor's body, his perfect analogies, his ruddy hair which shone like rays of sunlight, [and] his white body which appeared like clear and translucent crystal". In addition to his beauty, Constantine

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