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81-503: Madras State was a state of India which was in existence during the mid-20th century. The state came into existence on 26 January 1950 when the Constitution of India was adopted and included the present-day Tamil Nadu , Kerala and parts of neighbouring states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka . Andhra state was separated in 1953 and the state was further re-organized when states were redrawn linguistically in 1956 . On 14 January 1969,

162-465: A governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister . Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government cannot be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president's rule , was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After S. R. Bommai v. Union of India , such

243-464: A bridge constructed by the god Rama to reach the island Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from Ravana . In popular belief, Lanka is equated to present-day Sri Lanka and the bridge is described as "Rama's Setu". Due to lowered sea levels during the Last Glacial Period (115,000–11,700 years Before Present ) where sea levels reached a maximum of 120 m (390 ft) below present values,

324-428: A course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas. Article 370 gave special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir . Article 368 dictates the procedure for constitutional amendments . Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of

405-511: A land connection bridged this in the past, and some Ramanathaswamy Temple records suggest that violent storms broke the link in 1480. Cotton suggested that the channel could be dredged to enable passage of ships, but nothing was done until 1828, when Major Sim directed the blasting and removal of some rocks. A more detailed marine survey of Adam's Bridge was undertaken in 1837 by lieutenants F. T. Powell, Ethersey, Grieve, and Christopher, along with draughtsman Felix Jones, and operations to dredge

486-583: A manner which is undoubtedly commendable. B. R. Ambedkar in his concluding speech in constituent assembly on 25 November 1949 stated that: The credit that is given to me does not really belong to me. It belongs partly to Sir B.N. Rau the Constitutional Advisor to the Constituent Assembly who prepared a rough draft of the Constitution for the consideration of Drafting Committee. A part of

567-552: A new constitution for the separate states. The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly , which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies . The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India ) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period. In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, T. T. Krishnamachari said: Mr. President, Sir, I am one of those in

648-477: A preamble and 470 articles, which are grouped into 25 parts. With 12 schedules and five appendices, it has been amended 105 times ; the latest amendment became effective on 15 August 2021. The constitution's articles are grouped into the following parts: Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy. The executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government receive their power from

729-481: A single constitution, single citizenship , an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government , appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS , IFS and IPS ), and emergency provisions . This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form. Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has

810-525: A sovereign, democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950 which is celebrated every year in India as Republic Day . The constitution was drawn from a number of sources. Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as

891-441: Is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368(4), 368(5) and 31C. Rama%27s Bridge Adam's Bridge , also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu , is a chain of natural limestone shoals between Pamban Island , also known as Rameswaram Island, off the southeastern coast of Tamil Nadu , India , and Mannar Island , off the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka . Geological evidence suggests that

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972-620: Is a proposed road and rail sea bridge and tunnel that would cross the Palk Strait roughly over, or parallel to, Adam's Bridge. It would span from Dhanushkodi at the tip of Pamban Island in India, to Talaimannar on Mannar Island in Sri Lanka, and would be used for both industrial/economic purposes and to boost tourism. The bridge was first seriously proposed by the Indian and Sri Lankan governments in 2002, shelved after security-related objections by

1053-768: Is equated to present-day Sri Lanka. However, such a correspondence is not explicit in the Ramayana and a few verses can even be held to be against such an identification; some Sanskrit sources of the first millennium emphasise on the distinction. Robert P. Goldman — who edited the Princeton translation of the epic into English — characterises most of the Ramayana, including the Lanka Kanda , as "kind of [an] elaborate fairy tale" by design ; attempts to probe into its historicity were misguided. John Brockington, noted for his scholarship on Hindu epics, concurs. In extant historical sources,

1134-583: Is hand-written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose . Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada . The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India . Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India . The estimated cost of

1215-411: Is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic emergence and that the raised reef in southern India probably results from a local uplift. In the vicinity of Adam's Bridge/Rama Setu, the water is typically only 1–3 m (3 ft 3 in – 9 ft 10 in) deep. Due to the shallow waters, Adam's Bridge presents a formidable hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait. Though trade across

1296-474: Is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president cannot promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III . Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world's most frequently-amended national governing document. The constitution

1377-611: Is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies. In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The commission submitted its report on 31 March 2002. However, the recommendations of this report have not been accepted by the consecutive governments. The government of India establishes term-based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating

1458-604: Is that Adam's Bridge is identified popularly as the causeway described in the Ramayana . The political parties and organisations suggest alternate alignment for the channel that avoids damage to Adam's Bridge. The then state and central governments opposed such changes, with the Union Shipping Minister T. R Baalu, who belongs to the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and a strong supporter of the project maintaining that

1539-463: The 1951 census , the state had a population of 57,016,002 which later became 35,734,489 in 1953 after the split of Andhra and 30,119,047 in 1956. Hinduism was the major religion with 86.8% followed by Islam at 9% and Christianity at 4%. After 1953, Tamil was the major language followed by Malayalam (spoken in Malabar district before re-organization in 1956) and Telugu . O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar

1620-642: The All Parties Conference convened a committee in Lucknow to prepare the Constitution of India, which was known as the Nehru Report . With the exception of scattered French and Portuguese exclaves, India was under the British rule from 1858 to 1947. From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India was a dominion of United Kingdom for these three years, as each princely state

1701-582: The Archaeological Survey of India found no evidence for the structure being anything but a natural formation. The Archaeological Survey of India and the government of India informed the Supreme Court of India in a 2007 affidavit that there was no historical proof of the bridge being built by Rama. In 2017 the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) announced a pilot study into the origins of

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1782-619: The British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day . The constitution declares India a sovereign , socialist , secular , and democratic republic , assures its citizens justice , equality , and liberty , and endeavours to promote fraternity . The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium -filled case at the Parliament Library Building in New Delhi . In 1928,

1863-680: The Government of India Act 1858 , the Indian Councils Acts of 1861 , 1892 and 1909 , the Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935 , and the Indian Independence Act 1947 . The latter, which led to the creation of Pakistan , divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. The Amendment act of 1935 is also a very important step for making the constitution for two new born countries. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact

1944-588: The Indian famine of 1896–97 which killed millions and the migration to other British countries. The Indian Independence movement gathered momentum in the early 20th century. After the Indian Independence in 1947, the erstwhile Madras presidency was integrated into the Union of India as Madras province. The province became Madras state following the adoption of the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950. The state

2025-522: The Malabar district and Kasaragod taluk of South Canara district. The southern part of Travancore-Cochin , Kanyakumari district , along with Taluk, was transferred to Madras State. The Laccadive and Minicoy Islands were separated from Malabar District to form a new Union Territory namely Laccadive , Amindivi , and Minicoy Islands. The area shrank to 60,362 sq mi (156,340 km) and 50,216 sq mi (130,060 km) in 1956. As per

2106-566: The Midday Meal Scheme to cover all public schools. He introduced free school uniforms to weed out caste, creed and class distinctions among school children. The literacy rate went up from 19% to 37% during his tenure. Major irrigation schemes were planned in Kamaraj's period and more than ten dams and irrigation canals were built across the state. He established more than 13 industrial estates and brought many industries and research facilities to

2187-956: The Western Ghats in the west, separated from the Arabian Sea by Malabar coast , the Eastern Ghats in the north-east, the Eastern Coastal Plains lining the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait to the south-east, the Indian Ocean at the southern cape of the peninsula. It enclosed Puducherry and shares an international maritime border with the Northern Province of Sri Lanka at Pamban Island . The Palk Strait and

2268-743: The British consolidated their power over much of the region and established the Madras Presidency with Madras as the capital. The British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857. Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, the Great Famine of 1876–78 and

2349-416: The Constituent Assembly was ₹ 6.3 crore . The constitution has had more than 100 amendments since it was enacted. The Indian constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation. At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. At about 145,000 words, it is the second-longest active constitution—after the Constitution of Alabama —in the world. The amended constitution has

2430-614: The Constitution. His ability to put the most intricate proposals in the simplest and clearest legal form can rarely be equalled, nor his capacity for hard work. He has been an acquisition to the Assembly. Without his help this Assembly would have taken many more years to finalise the Constitution. I must not omit to mention the members of the staff working under Mr. Mukherjee. For, I known how hard they worked and how long they have toiled sometimes even beyond midnight. I want to thank them all for their effort and their co-operation. While deliberating

2511-531: The House who have listened to Dr. Ambedkar very carefully. I am aware of the amount of work and enthusiasm that he has brought to bear on the work of drafting this Constitution. At the same time, I do realise that that amount of attention that was necessary for the purpose of drafting a constitution so important to us at this moment has not been given to it by the Drafting Committee. The House is perhaps aware that of

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2592-483: The India–Sri Lanka divide has been active since at least the first millennium BC, it was limited to small boats and dinghies. Larger ocean-going vessels from the west have had to navigate around Sri Lanka to reach India's eastern coast. Eminent British geographer Major James Rennell , who surveyed the region as a young officer in the late 18th century, suggested that a "navigable passage could be maintained by dredging

2673-506: The Union government to use land passages instead of cutting Adam's Bridge because of the several advantages of land passage. In 2005, the government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project . This project aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Strait by dredging the shallow ocean floor near Dhanushkodi . The channel is expected to cut over 400 km (250 mi) (nearly 30 hours of shipping time) off

2754-657: The assembly, which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes . Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community , and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi. Harendra Coomar Mookerjee , a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo-Indian Christians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community. Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer , Benegal Narsing Rau , K. M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of

2835-427: The assembly, committees were proposed. Rau's draft was considered, debated and amended by the seven-member drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B. R. Ambedkar as chair. A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947. Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days. On 26 November 1949, it adopted

2916-486: The assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu , Hansa Mehta , Durgabai Deshmukh , Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit . The first, two-day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha ; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. It met for the first time on 9 December 1946. Sir B. N. Rau , a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and

2997-456: The basic structure doctrine. The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights. The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971. The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution. Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds. The judiciary protects

3078-445: The bridge was formerly a land connection between India and Sri Lanka. The feature is 48 km (30 mi) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar (southwest) from the Palk Strait (northeast). Some regions of the bridge are dry, and the sea in the area rarely exceeds 1 metre (3 ft) in depth, making it quite difficult for boats to pass over it. Ibn Khordadbeh 's Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik ( c.  850 ) refers to

3159-618: The chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama's Bridge separate the region from Sri Lanka , which lies off the southeastern coast. The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari where the Indian Ocean meets the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Andhra state was split from the state in 1953 and the state was further re-organized in 1956 when Kerala was formed by the merger of Travancore-Cochin state (except Sengottai taluk ) with

3240-564: The channel were recommenced the next year. However, these and subsequent efforts in the 19th century did not succeed in keeping the passage navigable for any vessels except those with a light draft. The government of India constituted nine committees before independence, and five committees since then, to suggest alignments for a Sethusamudram canal project. Most of them suggested land-based passages across Rameswaram island, and none recommended alignment across Adam's Bridge. The Sethusamudram project committee in 1956 also strongly recommended to

3321-448: The chief minister. In 1953, Potti Sriramulu went on a fast until death calling for a separate state for Telugu speaking people, which led to riots post his death. Andhra state was carved out of the Madras state in 1953. Rajaji removed controls on food grains and introduced a new education policy based on family vocation in 1953. According to this policy, students had to go to school in

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3402-531: The constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature . The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation, including a codified , supreme constitution; a three-tier governmental structure (central, state and local); division of powers ; bicameralism ; and an independent judiciary . It also possesses unitary features such as

3483-406: The constitution by Parliament. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a two-thirds majority of its total membership when at least two-thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills ), there

3564-489: The constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review . This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power. In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by

3645-519: The constitution, which was signed by 284 members. The day is celebrated as National Law Day, or Constitution Day . The day was chosen to spread the importance of the constitution and to spread thoughts and ideas of Ambedkar. The assembly's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution

3726-441: The constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution's basic features (when "read as a whole") cannot be abridged or abolished. These "basic features" have not been fully defined, and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature" is decided by the courts. The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution's basic structure: This implies that Parliament can only amend

3807-458: The credit must go to the members of the Drafting Committee who, as I have said, have sat for 141 days and without whose ingenuity to devise new formulae and capacity to tolerate and to accommodate different points of view, the task of framing the Constitution could not have come to so successful a conclusion. Much greater share of the credit must go to Mr. S. N. Mukherjee , the Chief Draftsman of

3888-546: The current proposal was economically viable and environmentally sustainable and that there were no other alternatives. Opposition to dredging through this causeway also stems from concerns over its impact on the area's ecology and marine wealth, potential loss of thorium deposits in the area and increased risk of damage due to tsunamis . Some organisations oppose this project on economic and environmental grounds and claim that proper scientific studies were not conducted before undertaking this project. The Palk Strait Bridge

3969-498: The entirety of the relatively shallow Palk Strait (which reaches a maximum depth of only 35 m (115 ft)) was exposed as dry land connecting the mainland Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. Following the rise to present sea levels during the Holocene , by around 7,000 years ago, the strait became submerged, including the region of Adam's Bridge/Rama Setu. The islands of Adam's Bridge became emergent again following sea level falls in

4050-582: The equation between the two islands appears for the first time only in the Kasakudi Copper Plates of Nandivarman II (r. late-8th century) pertaining to the conquest of Sri Lanka by one of his ancestors; as Ramayana took a life of its own under the succeeding Cholas, the identification profferred, justifying their imperial ambitions to invade the island. The link would then be co-opted by the Aryacakravarti dynasty of Jaffna in presenting themselves as

4131-429: The framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights , directive principles , and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written national constitution in the world. It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy , since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament ) and

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4212-444: The fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states). The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution, which cannot be changed by

4293-470: The guardians of the bridge. Nonetheless, two reputed medieval commentaries on the Ramayana — Ramanujiya (drafted c. 1500 by Ramanuja) and Tattvadipika (drafted c. 1550 by Mahesvaratirtha) — continued to make a distinction between Lanka and Sri Lanka. Muslim tradition holds that Adam's Bridge was crossed by Adam following his expulsion from the Garden of Eden . Religious beliefs that the geological structure

4374-507: The legislature or the executive. Article 50 of the Constitution provides that the state must take measures to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services. Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States . In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13 . The constitution is the supreme power of

4455-512: The medium of instruction in colleges. On 7 March 1964, Bhaktavatsalam recommended the introduction of a three-language formula comprising English, Hindi and Tamil. The amendment to the original act was passed in November 1967, accepting the three language formula where-in English will continue to be an additional language used for official communications. The Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu led to

4536-464: The morning and to compulsorily learn the family vocation practiced by their parents after school. It was opposed as casteist and opposed by Periyar . It was put on hold on 29 July 1953 and dropped altogether on 18 May 1954. On 13 April 1954, K. Kamaraj became the chief minister of Madras state. The state boundaries were re-organized further in 1956. Kamaraj opened a primary school for every square mile and eventually made school education free. He expanded

4617-671: The nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13 : Due to the adoption of the Thirty-eighth Amendment , the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies). The Forty-second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368(4) and 368(5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review

4698-426: The protests against Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project . NASA noted: "The images reproduced on the websites may well be ours, but their interpretation is certainly not ours. Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands, and certainly, cannot determine whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen." A report from

4779-528: The re-vitalization of the congress party which would later be known as the Kamaraj Plan . M. Bhaktavatsalam became the chief minister post the resignation of Kamaraj. During his tenure, the state witnessed Anti-Hindi agitations in response to the Union Government 's Official Languages Act passed in 1963 which planned to introduce Hindi as compulsory language and to rejected the demands to make Tamil

4860-473: The region from around 5,000 years ago to the present. The bridge starts as a chain of shoals from the Dhanushkodi tip of India's Pamban Island . It ends at Sri Lanka's Mannar Island . Pamban Island is accessed from the Indian mainland by the 2 km (1.2 mi) long Pamban Bridge . Mannar Island is connected to mainland Sri Lanka by a causeway. The lack of comprehensive field studies explains many of

4941-614: The revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635. G. V. Mavlankar was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) after India turned into a republic. B. R. Ambedkar , Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru , C. Rajagopalachari , Rajendra Prasad , Vallabhbhai Patel , Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi , Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar , Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad , Shyama Prasad Mukherjee , Nalini Ranjan Ghosh , and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in

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5022-581: The rise of Dravidian parties that formed Tamil Nadu's first government in 1967 . In 1967, the DMK won the elections and formed the first non-Congress government under Annadurai. The 1967 elections also resulted in an electoral fusion among the non- Congress parties to avoid a split in the Opposition votes with former chief minister Rajagopalachari leaving the Congress to found the right-wing Swatantra Party . In 1967,

5103-421: The rule of law. In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala , the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify; it cannot tinker with the constitution's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of

5184-634: The seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up and another person was engaged in State affairs, and there was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell on Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in

5265-423: The state government legalized self-respect marriages and announced the distribution of rice at subsidized prices through the public distribution system . In 1969, the state government proposed renaming the state to Tamil Nadu and on 14 January 1969, the state was renamed Tamil Nadu. Constitution of India The Constitution of India is the supreme legal document of India . The document lays down

5346-474: The state including Neyveli Lignite Corporation , BHEL at Trichy , Integral Coach Factory and IIT Madras . Kamaraj remained chief minister for three consecutive terms , winning elections in 1957 and 1962 . In 1949, C. N. Annadurai , a follower of Periyar, formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). On 2 October 1963, he resigned as the chief minister and proposed that all senior Congress leaders should resign from their posts to devote all their energy to

5427-414: The state was renamed as Tamil Nadu. Archaeological evidence points to the region being inhabited by hominids more than 400 millennia ago. Ancient Tamilakam , a region roughly on par with the Madras state, was ruled by a triumvirate of monarchical states, Cheras , Cholas and Pandyas . The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and Romans . The region

5508-496: The strait of Ramisseram [ sic ]". However, little notice was given to his proposal, perhaps because it came from "so young and unknown an officer", and the idea was only revived 60 years later. In 1823, Sir Arthur Cotton (then an ensign ) was assigned to survey the Pamban channel , which separates the Indian mainland from the island of Rameswaram and forms the first link of Adam's Bridge. Geological evidence indicates that

5589-588: The structure as Set Bandhai (lit. Bridge of the Sea). The name Adam's Bridge appeared probably around the time of Al-Biruni ( c.  1030 ). This appears to have been premised on the Islamic belief that Adam's Peak — where the biblical Adam fell to earth — is located in Sri Lanka, and that Adam crossed over to peninsular India via the bridge after his expulsion from the Garden of Eden . The ancient Sanskrit epic Ramayana (8th century BCE–3rd century CE) mentions

5670-490: The structure, but went on to shelve it. In 2007, the Sri Lankan Tourism Development Authority sought to promote religious tourism from Hindu pilgrims in India by including the phenomenon as one of the points on its "Ramayana Trail", celebrating the legend of Prince Rama. Some Sri Lankan historians have condemned the undertaking as "a gross distortion of Sri Lankan history". The idea of Rama Setu as

5751-494: The then-Governor of Tamil Nadu , and revived for serious consideration in 2023. As of August 2024, its status is that the feasibility studies are nearing completion. The ancient Sanskrit epic Ramayana , in the Yuddhakanda, mentions a bridge constructed by the god Rama with aid from an army of Vanaras (monkeys or forest-dwellers) to reach the island Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from Ravana. In popular belief, Lanka

5832-613: The uncertainties regarding the nature and origin of Adam's Bridge. It mostly consists of a series of parallel ledges of sandstone and conglomerates that are hard at the surface and grow coarse and soft as they descend to sandy banks. The Marine and Water Resources Group of the Space Applications Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) concludes that Adam's Bridge comprises 103 small patch reefs. One study tentatively concludes that there

5913-480: The voyage around the island of Sri Lanka . This proposed channel's current alignment requires dredging through Adam's Bridge. Indian political parties including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)) and some Hindu organisations oppose dredging through the shoal on religious grounds. The contention

5994-534: Was president of the United Nations Security Council , was appointed as the assembly's constitutional adviser in 1946. Responsible for the constitution's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948. The draft of B.N. Rau consisted of 243 articles and 13 schedules which came to 395 articles and 8 schedules after discussions, debates and amendments. At 14 August 1947 meeting of

6075-573: Was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble . Parliament cannot override the constitution . It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India . To ensure constitutional autochthony , its framers repealed prior acts of

6156-527: Was constructed based their arguments on vague speculation, false implications, and the point that – as with many geological formations – not every detail of its formation has been incontrovertibly settled. Indian Geologist C. P. Rajendran described the ensuing media controversy as an "abhorrent" example of the " post-truth era, where debates are largely focused on appeals to emotions rather than factual realities". NASA said that its satellite photos had been egregiously misinterpreted to make this point during

6237-679: Was constructed by Rama have caused some controversy as believers reject the natural provenance of Adam's Bridge. S. Badrinarayanan, a former director of the Geological Survey of India , a spokesman for the Indian government in a 2008 court case, the Madras High Court , and an episode from the Science Channel series What on Earth? have claimed that the structure is man-made. In the What on Earth? episode, those claiming that Adam's Bridge

6318-535: Was convinced by Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British Government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country. Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became

6399-574: Was later ruled by Kalabhras , Pallavas , Hoysalas and Vijayanagara . Europeans started to establish trade centers from the 16th century along the eastern coast. By the middle of the 18th century, the French and the British were involved in a protracted struggle for military control over South India. After the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 and the end of the Second Polygar war in 1801,

6480-402: Was split in 1953 and further re-organized in 1956. On 14 January 1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu. Madras state covered an area of 127,790 sq mi (331,000 km) and consisted of the present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala , Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra of Andhra Pradesh and South Canara of Karnataka . It was located on the south of the Indian peninsula , straddled by

6561-616: Was the Premier of Madras Presidency during the Independence and served till 6 April 1949. P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja was the chief minister till April 1952 till the first elections were held in 1952 . As laid down by the constitution, the state had 375 seats in the assembly. In 1952 elections, the Indian National Congress emerged as the single largest party in the assembly and formed the government with Chakravarti Rajagopalachari as

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