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113-562: Events/Artifacts (north to south) Events/Artifacts Artifacts The Confederation of Madja-as was a legendary pre-colonial supra- baranganic polity on the island of Panay in the Philippines . It was mentioned in Pedro Monteclaro's book titled Maragtas . It was supposedly created by Datu Sumakwel to exercise his authority over all the other datus of Panay. Like the Maragtas and

226-637: A rajah . Among the Subanon people of the Zamboanga Peninsula , a settlement's datus answer to a thimuay , and some thimuays are sometimes additionally referred to as thimuay labi , or as sulotan in more Islamized Subanon communities. In some other portions of the Visayas and Mindanao, there was no separate name for the most senior ruler, so the Paramount ruler was simply called a datu, although one datu

339-611: A Datu , or a leader with an equivalent title. This was the typical size of inland settlements by the time the Spanish colonizers arrived in the late 1500s, whereas larger, more cosmopolitan polities dominated the coasts, particularly river deltas. When barangays grew larger, as was the case in Maynila , Tondo , the Madja-as of Panay , Pangasinan , Cebu , Bohol , Butuan , Sanmalan , Cotabato , Sulu , and Lanao , among others, they took on

452-406: A center of domination . It was adopted by 20th century European historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of avoiding the term " state " in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian polities , except Vietnam, not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus , but they diverged considerably in

565-523: A Westerner's point of view. In June 1582, while he was in Arevalo ( Iloilo ), he wrote in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas the following observations: The island is the most fertile and well-provisioned of all the islands discovered, except the island of Luzon : for it is exceedingly fertile, and abounds in rice , swine , fowls , wax , and honey ; it produces also a great quantity of cotton and abacá fiber. "The villages are very close together, and

678-451: A century the center of Srivijaya was shifted from Sumatra to Java. The overlord-tributary relationship was not necessarily exclusive. A state in border areas might pay tribute to two or three stronger powers. The tributary ruler could then play the stronger powers against one another to minimize interference by either one, while for the major powers the tributaries served as a buffer zone to prevent direct conflict between them. For example,

791-459: A common economic class in some sense, though this class had no designation. Mandala (Southeast Asian political model) The map of earlier Southeast Asia which evolved from the prehistoric networks of small settlements and reveals itself in historical records was a patchwork of often overlapping mandalas. It is employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations, such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized polity under

904-508: A difficult endeavor to achieve in the strait of Malacca, which was among the world's most hotly contested maritime choke-point where, today, one half of world trade passes through. The naval power of Pannai was successful in policing and defending the straits of Malacca for the Mandala of Srivijaya until the Chola invasion of Srivijaya occurred, wherein a surprise attack from behind, originating from

1017-547: A geographic and ethnographic study of certain districts of northern Luzon by Fr. Angel Perez). Additionally, the characters and places mentioned in the Maragtas book, like Rajah Makatunaw and Madj-as can be found in Ming Dynasty Annals and Arabic Manuscripts. However, the written dates go earlier since Rajah Makatunaw was recorded to have been from 1082 AD and was a descendant of Seri Maharajah (According to Chinese annals) while

1130-442: A good part of the offerings of food, wine, clothing, and gold, the quality and quantity of which depended on the social status of the supplicant. Thus, the catalonas filled a very prestigious as well as lucrative role in society. Because of the difficulty of accessing and accurately interpreting the various available sources, relatively few integrative studies of pre-colonial social structures have been done – most studies focus on

1243-427: A hundred households. Other barangays — most notably those in Maynila , Tondo , Panay , Pangasinan , Cebu , Bohol , Butuan , Cotabato , and Sulu — were large cosmopolitan polities. The term originally referred to both a house on land and a boat on water, containing families, friends and dependents. Anthropologist F. Landa Jocano defines this period of the barangay states' dominance — approximately

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1356-458: A kin group had personal ties of economic reciprocity and loyalty. This explanation of the limited powers of a paramount leader in cultures throughout the Philippine archipelago explains the confusion experienced by Martin de Goiti during the first Spanish forays into Bulacan and Pampanga in late 1571. Until that point, Spanish chroniclers continued to use the terms "king" and "kingdom" to describe

1469-523: A limited degree of influence, which did not include claims over the barangays and territories of less-senior datus. For example, F. Landa Jocano , in his seminal work Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage , notes: Even if different Barangays entered into alliances with one another, there was no sovereign datu over them. Each datu ruled his barangay independently. The alliances were limited to mutual protection and assistance in times of need. It did not entail permanent allegiance. The grouping

1582-471: A major source of water for bathing, washing, and drinking. Early chroniclers record that the name evolved from the term balangay , which refers to a plank boat widely used by various cultures of the Philippine archipelago prior to the arrival of European colonizers; in essence a barangay is a ship or a fleet of ships and also a house or a settlement. Historically, the first barangays started as relatively small communities of around 30 to 100 families, with

1695-512: A militant-nation settled by warrior-monastics as evidenced by the temple ruins in the area as it was allied under the Srivijaya Mandala that defended the conflict-ridden Strait of Malacca . The small kingdom traded with and simultaneously repulsed any unlicensed Chinese, Indonesian, Indian or Arab navies that often warred in or pirated the strait of Malacca and, for a small country, they were adept at taking down armadas larger than itself -

1808-460: A more complex social organization. Several barangays, consisting of households loyal to a datu, Rajah or Sultan banded together to form larger cosmopolitan polities as an apex city states. The Rulers of these barangays would then select the most senior or most respected among them to serve as a paramount datu. These polities sometimes had other names (such as bayan in the Tagalog regions ) but since

1921-615: A number of adventures, they arrived at the bay of Taal , which was also called Lake Bombon on Luzon . Datu Puti returned to Borneo by way of Mindoro and Palawan, while the rest settled in Lake Taal. The descendants of the Datus who settled by Lake Taal spread out in two general directions: one group settling later around Laguna de Bay , and another group pushing southward into the Bicol Peninsula . A discovery of an ancient tomb preserved among

2034-812: A population that varies from one hundred to five hundred persons. When the Spaniards came, they found communities with only twenty to thirty people, as well as large and prestigious principalities. The coastal villages were more accessible to trade with foreigners. These were ideal places for economic activity to develop. Business with traders from other Countries also meant contact with other cultures and civilizations, such as those of Japan , Han Chinese , Indian people , and Arabs . In time, these coastal communities acquired more advanced cultures, with developed social structures (sovereign principalities), ruled by established royalties and nobilities. The smallest barangays were communities of around 30 to 100 households, led by

2147-665: A portion of the Datu's blood in their veins. The Boxer Codex calls these Timawas : Knights and Hidalgos . The Spanish conquistador, Miguel de Loarca, described them as "free men, neither chiefs nor slaves" . In the late 17th century, the Spanish Jesuit priest Fr. Francisco Ignatio Alcina, classified them as the third rank of nobility (nobleza). To maintain purity of bloodline, Datus marry only among their kind, often seeking high-ranking brides in other Barangays, abducting them, or contracting brideprices in gold, slaves and jewelry. Meanwhile,

2260-537: A religion of their own. The Datu Class was at the top of a divinely sanctioned and stable social order in a Sakop or Kinadatuan ( Kadatuan in ancient Malay; Kedaton in Javanese; and Kedatuan in many parts of modern Southeast Asia), which is elsewhere commonly referred to also as barangay . This social order was divided into three classes. The Kadatuan (members of the Visayan Datu Class) were compared by

2373-548: A smaller area than thitherto. The advent of Islam in the archipelago saw the application of this system which is still continued in the formation of the government, such as the formation of the 18th century Negeri Sembilan coalition which focused on Seri Menanti as a center flanked by four inner luak serambi and four outer districts. Another example is the post-Majapahit Islamic kingdoms in Java. Historian Martin Stuart-Fox uses

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2486-493: A string of gold beads so long that it touched the ground when worn and, second, a salakot , or native hat covered with gold. The term for that necklace which survive in the present Kinaray-a language is Manangyad , from the Kiniray-a term sangyad , which means "touching the ground when worn". There were also a variety of many beads, combs, as well as pieces of cloth for the women and fancifully decorated weapons (Treaty-Blades) for

2599-533: A variety of weapons and personal adornments, which were much superior to those known among the Negritos . Negotiations were conducted between the newcomers and the native Atis for the possession of a wide area of land along the coast, centering on the place called Andona , at a considerable distance from the original landing place. Some of the gifts of the Visayans in exchange of those lands are spoken of as being, first,

2712-448: A wand. Notable among the rituals performed by Babaylan was the pig sacrifice. Sometimes chicken were also offered. The sacrificial victims were placed on well adorned altars, together with other commodities and with the most exquisite local wine called Pangasi . The Babaylan would break into dance hovering around these offerings to the sound of drums and brass bells called Agongs , with palm leaves and trumpets made of cane. The ritual

2825-409: Is called barangay among them. They had datos and other special leaders [mandadores] who attended to the interests of the barangay. Because the peoples of the Philippine archipelago had different languages, the highest ranking political authorities in the largest historical barangay polities went by different titles. The titles of the paramount datu also changed from case to case, including: Sultan in

2938-820: Is called by the Visayans "Pag-aanito" . According to Augustinian Friar, Rev. Fr. Santaren, Datu Macatunao or Rajah Makatunao is the “sultan of the Moros,” and a relative of Datu Puti who seized the properties and riches of the ten datus. Robert Nicholls, a historian from Brunei identified Rajah Tugao, the leader of the Malano Kingdom of Sarawak, as the Rajah Makatunao referred to in the Maragtas. The Bornean warriors Labaodungon and Paybare, after learning of this injustice from their father-in-law Paiburong, sailed to Odtojan in Borneo where Makatunaw ruled. Using local soldiers recruited from

3051-519: Is now Cambodia), they and Sumatra were united in a rebellion against Rajah Makatunao who was a Chola appointed local Rajah. This oral legend of ancient Hiligaynons rebelling against Rajah Makatunao have corroboration in Chinese records during the Song Dynasty when Chinese scholars recorded that the ruler during a February 1082 AD diplomatic meeting, was Seri Maharaja, and his descendant was Rajah Makatunao and

3164-504: Is the first... It is very beautiful, very pleasant, and full of coconut palms... Near the river Alaguer ( Halaur ), which empties into the sea two leagues from the town of Dumangas..., in the ancient times, there was a trading center and a court of the most illustrious nobility in the whole island." Miguel de Loarca, who was among the first Spanish settlers in the Island, also made one of the earliest account about Panay and its people according to

3277-528: Is the term historically used by scholars to describe the complex sociopolitical units that were the dominant organizational pattern among the various peoples of the Philippine archipelago in the period immediately before the arrival of European colonizers. Academics refer to these settlements using the technical term " polity ", but they are usually simply called "barangays". Some barangays were well-organized independent villages, consisting of thirty to

3390-559: The Bicolanos refers to some of the same gods and personages mentioned in a Panay manuscript examined by anthropologists during the 1920s. Other Datus settled in Negros Island and other Visayan islands. The original Panay settlements continued to grow and later split up into three groups: one of which remained in the original district (Irong-irong), while another settled at the mouth of Aklan River in northern Panay. The third group moved to

3503-689: The Boxer Codex to the titled Lords ( Señores de titulo ) in Spain. As Agalon or Amo ( Lords ), the Datus enjoyed an ascribed right to respect, obedience, and support from their Ulipon (Commoner) or followers belonging to the Third Order. These Datus had acquired rights to the same advantages from their legal "Timawa" or vassals (Second Order), who bind themselves to the Datu as his seafaring warriors. Timawas paid no tribute and rendered no agricultural labor. They had

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3616-528: The Code of Kalantiaw , the historical authenticity of the confederation is disputed, as no other documentation for Madja-as exists outside of Monteclaro's book. However, the notion that the Maragtas is an original work of fiction by Monteclaro is disputed by a 2019 Thesis, named "Mga Maragtas ng Panay: Comparative Analysis of Documents about the Bornean Settlement Tradition" by Talaguit Christian Jeo N. of

3729-693: The Datu’s fields or do all sorts of other personal labor. In the Visayas, only the Oripuns were obliged to do that, and to pay tribute besides. The Tagalog who works in the Datu’s field did not pay him tribute, and could transfer their allegiance to another Datu . The Visayan Timawa neither paid tribute nor performed agricultural labor. In this sense, they were truly aristocrats. The Tagalog Maharlika did not only work in his Datu’s field, but could also be required to pay his own rent. Thus, all non- Maginoo in Luzon formed

3842-641: The Diwatas (A local adaptation of the Hindu or Buddhist Devata ). Early Spanish colonizers observed that some of these deities of the Confederation of Madja-as, have sinister characters, and so, the colonizers called them evil gods. These Diwatas live in rivers, forests, mountains, and the natives fear even to cut the grass in these places believed to be where the lesser gods abound. These places are described, even now (after more than four hundred years of Christianization of

3955-475: The Halaud River. An old manuscript ' Margitas' of uncertain date (discovered by the anthropologist H. Otley Beyer ) was said to have given interesting details about the laws, government, social customs, and religious beliefs of the early Visayans. The term Visayan was first applied only to them and to their settlements eastward in the island of Negros, and northward in the smaller islands, which now compose

4068-562: The social organization of early polities throughout the archipelago, alongside her study of inter and intra-regional trade among Philippine coastal polities. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Jesuit missionary Francisco Colin made an attempt to give an approximate comparison of the social stratification in Tagalog culture with that in the Visayan culture. While social mobility was possible in

4181-399: The 14th to the 16th centuries — as the "Barangic Phase" of early Philippine history. The Barangic Phase of Philippine history can be noted for its highly mobile nature, with barangays transforming from being settlements and turning into fleets and vice versa, with the wood constantly re-purposed according to the situation. Some scholars such as Damon Woods, however, have recently challenged

4294-458: The Aklan River and he was also appointed in charge of pacification and religious instruction. Pedro Sarmiento; was appointed for Batan, Francisco de Rivera; for Mambusao, Gaspar Ruiz de Morales; and for Panay town, Pedro Guillen de Lievana. Later (in 1569), Miguel López de Legazpi transferred the Spanish headquarters from Cebu to Panay. On 5 June 1569, Guido de Lavezaris, the royal treasurer in

4407-635: The Archipelago), Ribera mentioned that his aim was to make the inhabitants of that island " vassals of King Don Felipe... as are all the natives of the island of Panay, the Pintados Islands, and those of the island of Luzon... " In Book I, Chapter VII of the Labor Evangelica (published in Madrid in 1663), Francisco Colin, S.J. described the people of Iloilo as Indians who are Visayans in the strict sense of

4520-519: The Archipelago, wrote to Philip II reporting about the Portuguese attack to Cebu in the preceding autumn. A letter from another official, Andres de Mirandaola (dated three days later - 8 June), also described briefly this encounter with the Portuguese. The danger of another attack led the Spaniards to remove their camp from Cebu to Panay, which they considered a safer place. Legazpi himself, in his report to

4633-497: The Atis' way of distinguishing themselves from the white settlers. Following the religious ceremony, the priest indicated that it was the will of the gods that they should settle not at Andona , but rather at a place some distance to the east called Malandog (now a Barangay in Hamtik , Province of Antique , where there was both much fertile agricultural land and an abundant supply of fish in

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4746-534: The Augustinian missionary Fray Pedro de San Buenaventura, who described it as a large town with four to ten datu lived with their followers, called dulohan or barangay. After the various polities of the Philippine archipelago were united into a single political entity during colonial times, the term gradually lost its original specific meaning, and took on more generic, descriptive denotations: population center ( poblacion ) or capital ( cabisera ); municipality; or in

4859-747: The Code of Maragtas, a separate work from the Maragtas book, placed him at the 1200s. J. Carrol in his article: "The Word Bisaya in the Philippines and Borneo" (1960) thinks there might be indirect evidence in the possible affinity between the Visayans and Melanaos as he speculates that Makatunao is similar with the ancient leader of the Melanao in Sarawak , called "Tugau" or "Maha Tungao" (Maha or महत्, meaning 'great' in Sanskrit). Chinese annals and maps record Madja-as as marked with

4972-512: The Confederacy's territory), as mariit (enchanted and dangerous). The natives would make panabi-tabi (courteous and reverent request for permission) when inevitably constrained to pass or come near these sites. Miguel de Loarca in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (Arevalo: June 1582) described them. Some are the following: Some Spanish colonial historians, including Isabelo de los Reyes y Florentino, would classify some heroes and demigods of

5085-481: The Datus keep their marriageable daughters secluded for protection and prestige. These well-guarded and protected highborn women were called Binukot , the Datus of pure descent (four generations) were called "Potli nga Datu" or "Lubus nga Datu" , while a woman of noble lineage (especially the elderly) are addressed by the inhabitants of Panay as "Uray" (meaning: pure as gold), e.g., Uray Hilway . The Visayans adored (either for fear or veneration) various gods called

5198-669: The De La Salle University who stated that, "Contrary to popular belief, the Monteclaro Maragtas is not a primary source of the legend but is rather more accurately a secondary source at best" as the story of the Maragtas also appeared in the Augustinian Friar, Rev. Fr. Tomas Santaren’s Bisayan Accounts of Early Bornean Settlements (originally a part of the appendice in the book, Igorrotes: estudio geográfico y etnográfico sobre algunos distritos del norte de Luzon Igorots:

5311-466: The Panay epic Hinilawod , like Labaw Donggon , among these Diwatas. In the above-mentioned report of Miguel de Loarca, the Visayans' belief regarding the origin of the world and the creation of the first man and woman was recorded. The narrative says: The people of the coast, who are called Yligueynes , believed that the heaven and earth had no beginning and that there were two gods, one called Captan and

5424-428: The Philippines as well as fellow pioneers, the warriors sacked the city, killed Makatunaw and his family, retrieved the stolen properties of the 10 datus, enslaved the remaining population of Odtojan, and sailed back to Panay. Labaw Donggon and his wife, Ojaytanayon, later settled in a place called Moroboro . Afterwards there are descriptions of various towns founded by the datus in Panay and southern Luzon. According to

5537-496: The Philippines, the inhabitants of Panay Island were originally from North Sumatra; especially from the polity of Pannai, after which the Island of Panay (called Ananipay by the Atis) was named after (i and y being interchangeable in Spanish). It was founded by Pannai loyalists who wanted to reestablish their state elsewhere following an occupation of their homeland. The polity of Pannai was

5650-521: The Philippines. Seeing how the actual Srivijayan Empire reached even the outer coast of Borneo, which is already neighboring the Philippines, Historian Robert Nicholl implied that the Srivijayans of Sumatra, Vijayans of Vijayapura at Brunei and the Visayans in the Philippines were all related and connected to each other since they form one contiguous area. According to the ancient tradition recorded by P. Francisco Colin, S.J., an early Spanish missionary in

5763-571: The Viceroy in New Spain (dated 1 July 1569), mentioned the same reason for the relocation of Spaniards to Panay. It was in Panay that the conquest of Luzon was planned, and launched on 8 May 1570. In 1716, the old Sakup (Sovereign Territory) of Aklan completely fell under the Iberian control, and became Spanish politico-military province under the name of Capiz. And so it remained for the next 240 years. During

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5876-454: The Visayan " dialect " of Panay. This fact indicates that the ancient people of Panay called themselves as Visayans , for the Spaniards would have otherwise simply referred to them as "people of the Panay". This self-reference as Visayans as well as the appellative ( Panay - a riminescence of the State of Pannai) that these people give to the Island manifest a strong sign of their identification with

5989-690: The Yuan dynasty annals, the Nanhai zhi 南海志 (Dated on 1304), the Empire of Pon-i (Preislamic Brunei) conquered Yachen 啞陳 (present-day Oton, a part of Madja-as) as it also conquered Malilu 麻裏蘆 (present-day Manila), Ma-i (in Mindoro), Meikun 美昆 Palawan Island (present-day Manukan), Puduan (AKA the Rajahnate of Butuan ), Sulu , Shahuchong 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon), Manaluonu 麻拿囉奴, and Wenduling 文杜陵 (present-day Mindanao) However, when Pon-i

6102-538: The babaylans were also regarded as allies of certain datus in subjugating an enemy, hence, the babaylans were also known for their specialization in medical and divine combat. According to William Henry Scott (Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippines Culture and Society) a Katalonan could be of either sex, or male transvestites (bayoguin), but were usually women from prominent families who were wealthy in their own right. According to Luciano P. R. Santiago (To Love and to Suffer) as remuneration for their services they received

6215-485: The basis for many place-names in the Philippines, such as Bay, Laguna and Laguna de Bay , and Baybay . The earliest documentation of the term "Bayan" was done by early Spanish missionaries who came up with local language dictionaries to facilitate the conversion of the peoples of the Philippine archipelago to Roman Catholicism. Among the most significant of these dictionaries was the Vocabulario de la lengua tagala by

6328-501: The broadest sense, "country". Among the most prominent of these bayan entities were those in Maynila , Tondo , Pangasinan , Cebu , Bohol, Butuan , Cotabato , and Sulu . Although popular portrayals and early nationalist historical texts sometimes depict Philippine paramount rulers as having broad sovereign powers and holding vast territories, critical historiographers such as Jocano, Scott, and Junker explain that historical sources clearly show paramount leaders exercised only

6441-455: The city of Manila and other places with a large quantity of rice and meat... As the island contains great abundance of timber and provisions, it has almost continuously had a shipyard on it, as is the case of the town of Arevalo, for galleys and fragatas . Here the ship Visaya was launched." Precolonial barangay Events/Artifacts (north to south) Events/Artifacts Artifacts In early Philippine history , barangay

6554-731: The city of Yachen 啞陳 (Oton, which is a district in Panay). In the aftermath of the Indian Chola invasion of Srivijaya , Datu Puti led some dissident datus from Borneo (including present day Brunei which then was the location of the Vijayapura state which was a local colony of the Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya empire and Vijayapura itself upon earlier in its history, was a rump state of the fallen multi-ethnic: Austronesian, Austroasiatic and Indian, Funan Civilization , previously located in what

6667-516: The community, on par with the Maginoo. In the absence of the datu (head of the community), the Babaylan takes in the role of interim head of the community. Babaylans were powerful ritual specialists who were believed to have influence over the weather and tap various spirits in the natural and spiritual realms. Babaylans were held in such high regard as they were believed to possess powers that can block

6780-414: The comparison emphasises the radiation of power from each power center, as well as the non-physical basis of the system. Other metaphors such as S. J. Tambiah 's original idea of a " galactic polity" describe political patterns similar to the mandala. The historian Victor Lieberman prefers the "solar polity" metaphor, referencing the gravitational pull the sun exerts over the planets. Historically,

6893-436: The consensual delegation of power upwards (sic) through the system." Junker, expounding further on Keifer's work, notes: While political leadership followed an explicitly symbolized hierarchy (sic) of rank [...] this leadership hierarchy (sic) did not (sic) constitute an institutionalized chain of command from center to periphery. Political allegiance was given only to the leader immediately above an individual with whom

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7006-418: The dark magic of an evil datu or spirit and heal the sick or wounded. Among other powers of the babaylan were to ensure a safe pregnancy and child birth. As a spiritual medium, babaylans also lead rituals with offerings to the various divinities or deities. As an expert in divine and herb lore, incantations, and concoctions of remedies, antidotes, and a variety of potions from various roots, leaves, and seeds,

7119-781: The datu was agricultural labor, but they could also work in fisheries, accompany expeditions, and rowboats. They could also perform irregular services, like support feasts or build houses. In Visayas , they paid no tribute and rendered no agricultural labor. They were seafaring warriors who bound themselves to a datu. Member included: illegitimate children of Maginoo and slaves and former alipin who paid off their debts. Member included: those who have inherited debts from namamahay parents, timawa who went into debt, and former alipin saguiguilid who married and were allowed to live outside of master's house. Member included: children born in creditor's house and children of parents who were too poor to raise them. Babaylan were highly respected members of

7232-542: The district called Hantik. These settlements continued to exist down to the time of the Spanish regime and formed centers, around which the later population of the three provinces of Iloilo , Capiz , and Antique grew up. The early Bornean settlers in Panay were not only seafaring. They were also a river-based people. They were very keen in exploring their rivers. In fact, this was one of the few sports they loved so much. The Island's oldest and longest epic Hinilawod recounts legends of its heroes' adventures and travels along

7345-499: The early part of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the Spanish Augustinian Friar Gaspar de San Agustín, O.S.A. described Panay as: "...very similar to that of Sicily in its triangular form, as well as in its fertility and abundance of provision. It is the most populated island after Manila and Mindanao, and one of the largest (with over a hundred leagues of coastline). In terms of fertility and abundance, it

7458-474: The expansion from Maritime Southeast Asia out into the Pacific. Noting the mobile and maritime nature of Austronesian culture, these ancient barangays were coastal or riverine in nature. This was because most of the people relied on fishing for their supply of protein and livelihoods. They also travelled mostly by water up and down rivers, and along the coasts. Trails always followed river systems, which were also

7571-542: The expedition had landed, the Malay migrants from Borneo came in contact with the native people of the Island, who were called Atis or Agtas . Some writers have interpreted these Atis as Negritos . Other sources present evidence that they were not at all the original people of Negrito type, but were rather tall, dark-skinned austronesian type. These native Atis lived in villages of fairly well-constructed houses. They possessed drums and other musical instruments, as well as

7684-519: The former, in the Visayas, the Datu (if had the personality and economic means) could retain and restrain competing peers, relatives, and offspring from moving up the social ladder. The term Timawa came into use in the Tagalog social structure within just twenty years after the coming of the Spaniards. The term, however, was being applied to former Alipin (Third Class) who have escaped bondage by payment, favor, or flight. The Tagalog Timawas did not have

7797-447: The high-borne scholars, soldiers and nobles of Pannai who refused to swear allegiance to a treacherous invading empire, faithfully followed their kings, the "datus" and "fled to other islands." Furthermore, an older Muslim Historian, Ibn Said, quoted Arabic texts that state that to the north of Muja (Arabic name for Northwest Borneo) lies the island of Mayd in the Philippines, and Mayd forms a similar orthography to Madj(a)-as. Soon after

7910-399: The island of Cebu is also healthful and had a good climate, most of its inhabitants are always afflicted with the itch and buboes. In the island of Panay, the natives declare that no one of them had ever been afflicted with buboes until the people from Bohol - who, as we said above, abandoned Bohol on account of the people of Maluco - came to settle in Panay, and gave the disease to some of

8023-402: The lesser kingdoms were minimal. The most notable tributary states were post-Angkor Cambodia , Lan Xang (succeeded by the Kingdom of Vientiane and Luang Prabang ) and Lanna . Cambodia in the 18th century was described by the Vietnamese emperor Gia Long as "an independent country that is slave of two" (Chandler p. 119). The system was eventually ended by the arrival of the Europeans in

8136-400: The lordship of Humabon. The same was true of the other datus who resisted coercive efforts of the Spaniards to make them subservient to other Datus. Keifer compares this situation to similarly-structured African polities where "component units of the political structure consist of functionally and structurally equivalent segments integrated only loosely by a centralized authority dependent on

8249-516: The main suzerain or overlord states were the Khmer Empire of Cambodia ; Srivijaya of South Sumatra ; the successive kingdoms of Mataram , Kediri , Singhasari and Majapahit of Java ; the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Thailand ; Champa and early Đại Việt . China occupies a special place in that the others often in turn paid tribute to China , although in practice the obligations imposed on

8362-459: The male line and by succession of father and son and their descendants. If these were lacking, then their brothers and collateral relatives succeeded... When any of these chiefs was more courageous than others in war and upon other occasions, such a one enjoyed more followers and men; and the others were under his leadership, even if they were chiefs. These latter retained to themselves the lordship and particular government of their own following, which

8475-447: The man asked the woman to marry him for there were no other people in the world; but she refused, saying they were brother and sister, born of the same reed, with only one know between them. Finally, they agreed to ask the advice from the tunnies of the sea and from the doves of the earth. They also went to the earthquake, which said that it was necessary for them to marry, so that the world might be peopled. The Visayans believed that when

8588-439: The manner of our kingdoms and provinces; but in every island, and in each province of it, many chiefs were recognized by the natives themselves. Some were more powerful than others, and each one had his followers and subjects, by districts and families; and these obeyed and respected the chief. Some chiefs had friendship and communication with others, and at times wars and quarrels. These principalities and lordships were inherited in

8701-506: The men. The sale was celebrated by a feast of friendship between the newcomers and the natives, following which the latter formally turned over possession of the settlement. Afterwards a great religious ceremony and sacrifice was performed in honor of the settlers' ancient gods, by the priest whom they had brought with them from Borneo. The Atis were the ones who referred to the Borneans as mga Bisaya , which some historians would interpret as

8814-445: The mid-19th century. Culturally, they introduced Western geographical practices, which assumed that every area was subject to one sovereign. Practically, the colonisation of French Indochina , Dutch East Indies , British Malaya and Burma brought pressure from the colonisers for fixed boundaries to their possessions. The tributary states were then divided between the colonies and Siam, which exercised much more centralised power but over

8927-670: The military prominence of the Visayan Timawa . The warrior class in the Tagalog society was present only in Laguna, and they were called the Maharlika Class. At the early part of the Spanish regime, the number of their members who were coming to rent land from their Datus was increasing. Unlike the Visayan Datus, the Lakans and Apos of Luzon could call all non- Maginoo subjects to work in

9040-610: The most Islamized areas of Mindanao; lakan among the Tagalogs; Thimuay Labi among the Subanen ; rajah in polities which traded extensively with Indonesia and Malaysia; or simply Datu in some areas of Mindanao and the Visayas. In communities which historically had strong political or trade connections with Indianized polities in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Paramount Ruler was called

9153-447: The natives. For these reasons the governor, Don Gonzalo Ronquillo, founded the town of Arevalo, on the south side of this island; for the island runs north and south, and on that side live the majority of the people, and the villages are near this town, and the land here is more fertile." "The Ilongga women distinguish themselves in courage, exhibiting feats that are beyond the expectations of their gender." "The island of Panay provides

9266-562: The occupied capital, rendered the militant polity of Pannai vulnerable from an unprotected assault from the back flank. The Chola invaders eventually destroyed the polity of Pannai and its surviving soldiers, royals and scholars were said to have been secreted-out eastwards. In their 450 years of occupying Sumatra, they refused to be enslaved to Islam , Taoism or Hinduism after the polity's dissolution. The people who stayed behind in Pannai, themselves, have an oral tradition wherein they said that

9379-428: The ocean, and featured a compact community layout which distinguished them from inland communities, thus the name. Odal-Devors notes that bayan's root word, Ba-y or Ba-i , is linguistically related to other Philippine words for shoreline and perimeter (both baybay ), woman ( babai or the Visayan term ba-i "great lady"), friend (the Visayan term bay ), and writing ( baybayin ). She also notes that these terms are

9492-454: The opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. In some ways similar to the feudal system of Europe, states were linked in suzerain – tributary relationships. The term draws a comparison with the mandala of the Hindu and Buddhist worldview ;

9605-458: The original "barangays" were coastal settlements formed as a result of the migration of Austronesian people , who came to the archipelago by boat from Taiwan initially, and stayed in the archipelago to create a thalassocratic and highly sea dependent civilization based on outrigger boats , catamarans and stilt houses . This became the mainstays of the Austronesian speaking populations through

9718-453: The other Maguayen . They believed that the breeze and the sea were married; and that the land breeze brought forth a reed, which was planted by the god Captan. When the reed grew, it broke into two sections, from which came a man and a woman. To the man they gave the name Silalac , and that is the reason why men from that time on have been called lalac ; the woman they named Sicavay , and henceforth women have been called babaye ...' One day

9831-525: The people are peaceful and open to conversion. The land is healthful and well-provisioned, so that the Spaniards who are stricken in other islands go thither to recover their health." The Visayans are physically different from the Malays of Luzon, and can be distinguished by the fact that Visayans are fairer in complexion. Because of this trait, there was an old opinion about these Visayans originating from Makassar . "The natives are healthy and clean, and although

9944-455: The people of a particular area. The tributary owner in turn had power either over tributary states further down the scale, or directly over "his" people, wherever they lived. No ruler had authority over unpopulated areas. The personal relationship between overlord and subordinate rulers also defined the dynamic of relationship within a mandala. The relations between Dharmasetu of Srivijaya and Samaratungga of Sailendra , for instance, defined

10057-493: The peoples of Bulacan and Pampanga before the arrival of the Spanish. The barangays in some coastal places in Panay, Manila, Cebu, Jolo, and Butuan, with cosmopolitan cultures and trade relations with other Countries in Asia, were already established Principalities before the coming of the Spaniards. In these regions, even though the majority of these barangays were not large settlements, yet they had organized societies dominated by

10170-482: The polities of Tondo and Maynila, but Goiti was surprised when Lakandula explained there was "no single king over these lands", and that the leadership of Tondo and Maynila over the Kapampangan polities did not include either territorial claim or absolute command. Antonio de Morga, in his work Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas , expounds: There were no kings or lords throughout these islands who ruled over them as in

10283-526: The precursor civilization of the Srivijayan Empire. Gabriel Rivera, a captain of the Spanish royal infantry in the Philippine Islands, also distinguished Panay from the rest of the Pintados Islands. In his report (dated 20 March 1579) regarding a campaign to pacify the natives living along the rivers of Mindanao (a mission he received from Dr. Francisco de Sande , Governor and Captain-General of

10396-504: The present, in unhispanized and mostly Islamized parts of the Philippines, in Mindanao. Panginoon were maginoo with many slaves and other valuable property like houses and boats. Lineage was emphasized over wealth; the nouveau riche were derogatorily referred to as maygintawo (fellow with a lot of riches). Members included: those who could claim noble lineage, members of the datu's family. Sultan In Luzon , their main responsibility to

10509-636: The priests or priestesses to offer ceremonies and prayers so that he might go to the place of rest in heaven. The spiritual leaders of the confederation were called Babaylan . Most of the Babaylan were women who, for some reasons, the colonizers described as " lascivious " and astute. On certain ceremonial occasions, they put on elaborate apparel, which appear bizarre to Spaniards. They would wear yellow false hair, over which some kind of diadem adorn and, in their hands, they wielded straw fans. They were assisted by young apprentices who would carry some thin cane as for

10622-566: The province of Romblon . In fact, even at the early part of Spanish colonialization of the Philippines, the Spaniards used the term Visayan only for these areas. While the people of Cebu , Bohol , and Leyte were for a long time known only as Pintados . The name Visayan was later extended to them because, as several of the early writers state (especially in the writings of the Jesuit Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro published in 1801), albeit erroneously, their languages are closely allied to

10735-510: The same type of recognized aristocracy (with birthright claim to allegiance from followers), as those found in established Principalities. The aristocratic group in these pre-colonial societies was called the Datu Class. Its members were presumably the descendants of the first settlers on the land or, in the case of later arrivals, of those who were Datus at the time of migration or conquest. Some of these Principalities have remained, even until

10848-473: The sea. After nine days, the entire group of newcomers was transferred to Malandog . At this point, Datu Puti announced that he must now return to Borneo. He appointed Datu Sumakwel, the oldest, wisest and most educated of the datus, as chief of the Panayan settlement. Not all the Datus , however, remained in Panay. Two of them, with their families and followers, set out with Datu Puti and voyaged northward. After

10961-520: The specific context of a single settlement or ethnic group. There are only a handful of historiographers and anthropologists who have done integrative studies to examine the commonalities and differences between these polities . In the contemporary era of critical scholarly analysis, the more prominent such works include the studies of anthropologist F. Landa Jocano and historian-historiographer William Henry Scott . More recently, anthropologist Laura Lee Junker conducted an updated comparative review of

11074-477: The succession of this dynastic family. Dharmasetu was the Srivijayan Maharaja overlord, while the house of Sailendra in Java is suggested to be related and was subscribed to Srivijayan mandala domination. After Samaratungga married Princess Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became his successor and the house of Sailendra was promoted to become the dynastic lineage of later Srivijayan kings, and for

11187-507: The term "mandala" extensively to describe the history of the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang as a structure of loosely held together mueang that disintegrated after Lan Xang's conquest by Thailand starting in the 18th century. Thai historian Sunait Chutintaranond made an important contribution to study of the mandala in Southeast Asian history by demonstrating that "three assumptions responsible for

11300-406: The terminology varies from case to case, scholars such as Jocano and Scott simply refer to them as "larger" barangays. Grace Odal-Devora traces the etymology of the term bayan to the word bahayan , meaning a "community", or literally "a place with many households ( bahay )." The majority of these early "bayan" were economically complex communities situated river deltas where rivers exit out into

11413-539: The time comes for a person to die, the diwata Pandaki visits him to bring about death. Magwayen , the soul ferry god, carries the souls of the Yligueynes to the abode of the dead called Solad . But when a bad person dies, Pandaki brings him to the place of punishment in the abode of the dead, where his soul will wait to move on to the Ologan or heaven. While the dead is undergoing punishment, his family could help him by asking

11526-436: The tributary, but in general interference with the tributary's domestic affairs was minimal: he would retain his own army and powers of taxation, for example. In the case of the more tenuous relationships, the "overlord" might regard it as one of tribute, while the "tributary" might consider the exchange of gifts to be purely commercial or as an expression of goodwill (Thongchai p. 87). The emphasis on personal relationships

11639-409: The tributary. However, the tributary also had to provide men and supplies when called on, most often in time of war. The main benefit to the tributary was protection from invasion by other powers, although as South East Asia historian Thongchai Winichakul notes, this was often "mafia-like protection" from the threats of the overlord himself. In some cases, the overlord also controlled the succession in

11752-405: The use of the term barangay to describe the Philippines' various indigenous polities, citing a lack of linguistic evidence and the fact that all of the primary references suggesting that use of the term can be traced to just a single source - Juan de Plascencia's 1589 report Las costumbres de los indios Tagalos de Filipinas . Instead, Woods argues that this use of the term barangay reflected what

11865-617: The view that Ayudhya was a strong centralized state" did not hold and that "in Ayudhya the hegemony of provincial governors was never successfully eliminated." The obligations on each side of the relationship varied according to the strength of the relationship and the circumstances. In general, the tributary was obliged to pay bunga mas , a regular tribute of various valuable goods and slaves, and miniature trees of gold and silver ( bunga mas dan perak ). The overlord ruler reciprocated with presents often of greater value than those supplied by

11978-482: The word ( Indios en rigor Bisayas ), observing also that they have two different languages: Harayas and Harigueynes , which are actually the Karay-a and Hiligaynon languages. Before the advent of the Spaniards, the settlements of this confederation already had a developed civilization, with defined social mores and structures, enabling them to form an alliance, as well as with a sophisticated system of beliefs, including

12091-401: Was based on consensus. Whoever was chosen by the groups as their leader exercised leadership and asserted authority over them. It was a living democracy...Barangay alliances were loosely defined. These were often based on kinship and marriage. Each Barangay remained independent and enjoyed freedom from external control. That was why Lapulapu resisted the attempt of Magellan to make him acknowledge

12204-480: Was identifiable as the most senior. Often, these paramount datus, rajahs and sultans formed ritual alliances with the leaders of nearby polities, and these "alliance groups" spread their political influence (but not their territorial claims ) across an even larger geographic area. One prominent example was the case of the Paramount Rulers of Maynila and Tondo , who were said to have political sway among

12317-748: Was in turn invaded by the Maharaja of Majapahit, Pon-i's vassals in the Philippines rebelled and Sulu even invaded and sacked Northeast Borneo and stole 2 sacred pearls from the Pon-i king. The Spaniards landed in Batan (in Panay's northeastern territory, which is currently called Province of Aklan ), in 1565. Following the Spanish conquest, the locals became Christians. Father Andres Urdaneta baptized thousands of Aklanons in 1565, and consequently these settlements were named Calivo . Legazpi then parceled Aklan to his men. Antonio Flores became encomiendero for all settlements along

12430-530: Was merely an attempt by the Spanish to reconstructing pre-conquest Tagalog society. The term has since been adapted as the name of the basic political unit of the Philippines. So historical barangays should not be confused with present-day Philippine barrios , which were officially renamed barangays by the Philippine Local Government Code of 1991 as a reference to historical barangays. Theories, as well as local oral traditions, say that

12543-409: Was one of the defining characteristics of the mandala system. The tributary ruler was subordinate to the overlord ruler, rather than to the overlord state in the abstract. This had many important implications. A strong ruler could attract new tributaries, and would have strong relationships over his existing tributaries. A weaker ruler would find it harder to attract and maintain these relationships. This

12656-435: Was put forward as one cause of the sudden rise of Sukhothai under Ramkhamhaeng , for example, and for its almost equally steep decline after his death (Wyatt, 45 and 48). The tributary ruler could repudiate the relationship and seek either a different overlord or complete independence. The system was non-territorial. The overlord was owed allegiance by the tributary ruler, or at most by the tributary's main town, but not by all

12769-451: Was together with Sang Aji (grandfather to Sultan Muhammad Shah). Madja-as could have an even earlier history since Robert Nicholl stated that a Bruneian (Vijayapuran) and Madjas (Mayd) alliance had existed against China as early as the 800s. According to the Maragtas the dissidents against new Rajah's rule and their retinue, tried to revive Srivijaya in a new country called Madja-as in the Visayas islands (an archipelago named after Srivijaya) in

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