The Marine Mammal Protection Act ( MMPA ) was the first act of the United States Congress to call specifically for an ecosystem approach to wildlife management.
66-550: MMPA is an acronym that may refer to: Marine Mammal Protection Act Copyright Term Extension Act (also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act) Matched molecular pair analysis (in Cheminformatics ) El Tajín National Airport , ICAO code Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
132-821: A basis for importing fish and fish products from nations engaged in harvesting yellowfin tuna with purse seines and other commercial fishing technology, as well as authorized appropriations for agency activities through FY 1988. Amended in 1988 Amended in 1994 Under the MMPA amended in 1994, in Section 119, NMFS and FWS was authorized to form the cooperative agreements ( co-management plan) with Alaska Native Organizations (ANOs) . This allows indigenous tribal government can engage in their territorial marine mammal protection and subsistence taking issues through individual co-management agreements which can be established with NOAA, USFWS, MMC, or other MMPA-affiliated agencies. Co-management
198-417: A daily basis. They issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is also relevant to the issues of climate change and ozone depletion . The NWS operates NEXRAD , a nationwide network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation and their velocities. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio ,
264-492: A national drought early warning information system. The NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft , and serve in scientific and administrative posts. Since 2001, the organization has hosted the senior staff and recent chair, Susan Solomon , of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's working group on climate science. Hurricane Dorian
330-517: A network of radio transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches and warnings 24 hours a day. The National Ocean Service (NOS) focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, and productive. NOS scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists serve America by ensuring safe and efficient marine transportation, promoting innovative solutions to protect coastal communities, and conserving marine and coastal places. The National Ocean Service
396-541: A new agency to serve a national need for "better protection of life and property from natural hazards... for a better understanding of the total environment... [and] for exploration and development leading to the intelligent use of our marine resources". NOAA is a part of the Department of Commerce rather than the Department of Interior , because of a feud between President Nixon and his interior secretary, Wally Hickel , over
462-632: A research grants program through the Climate Program Office, and 13 cooperative institutes with academia. Through NOAA and its academic partners, thousands of scientists, engineers, technicians, and graduate students participate in furthering our knowledge of natural phenomena that affect the lives of us all. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is one of the laboratories in the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. It studies processes and develops models relating to climate and air quality, including
528-595: A specified activity other than commercial fishing in a specified geographic area. Directed permits are required for any proposed marine mammal scientific research activity that involves taking marine mammals. Applications for such permits are reviewed and issued the Service's Division of Management Authority, through the International Affairs office. This office also houses the Division of International Conservation, which
594-535: Is a modification of the flag of one of its predecessor organizations, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey . The Coast and Geodetic Survey's flag, authorized in 1899 and in use until 1970, was blue, with a white circle centered in it and a red triangle centered within the circle. It symbolized the use of triangulation in surveying , and was flown by ships of the Survey. When NOAA was established in 1970 and
660-594: Is composed of eight program offices: the Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services, the Office for Coastal Management, the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, the Office of Coast Survey , the Office of National Geodetic Survey , the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries , the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, and the Office of Response and Restoration . There are two NOS programs,
726-1085: Is developed with a team involving representatives from fishing industry, management councils, governmental agencies, scientific community, and conservation organization. The consensus from the representatives is then submitted to NOAA for review then through the public comment. As the Plan is finalized, NOAA has the duty to monitor its implementation with the team. Yet, the Plans are uneven or unstandardized in practice to meet its statutory requirement. Successful plans are often based upon mandated, quantitative metrics, and consistent monitoring programs. Congress found that: all species and population stocks of marine mammals are, or may be, in danger of extinction or depletion due to human activities; these mammals should not be permitted to diminish below their optimum sustainable population; measures should be taken immediately to replenish any of these mammals that have diminished below that level, and efforts should be made to protect essential habitats; there
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#1732852859481792-624: Is directly responsible for coordinating international activities for marine mammal species found in both U.S. and International waters, or are absent from U.S. waters. Marine mammal species inhabiting both U.S. and International waters include the West Indian manatee , sea otter , polar bear , and Pacific walrus . Species not present in U.S. waters include the West African and Amazonian manatee , dugong , Atlantic walrus , and marine otter . In efforts to conserve and manage marine mammal species,
858-701: Is home to over 40 NOAA sub-agencies and offices, including the National Weather Service . Richard (Rick) W. Spinrad is the 11th and current Under Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere and NOAA Administrator. He was nominated by President Biden, and his nomination was confirmed by the US Senate on June 17, 2021, by voice vote. He was sworn in on June 23, 2021. From February 25, 2019, to January 20, 2021, Neil Jacobs , Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Environmental Observation and Prediction, served as acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at
924-536: Is inadequate knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of these mammals; negotiations should be undertaken immediately to encourage international arrangements for research and conservation of these mammals. Congress declared that marine mammals are resources of great international significance (aesthetic, recreational and economic), and should be protected and encouraged to develop to the greatest extent feasible commensurate with sound policies of resource management. The primary management objective should be to maintain
990-581: Is led by a NOAA Corps two-star Rear Admiral , who also commands the NOAA Corps. The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) is a major surveying organization in the United States. The National Integrated Drought Information System is a program within NOAA with an interagency mandate to coordinate and integrate drought research, building upon existing federal, tribal, state, and local partnerships in support of creating
1056-538: Is part of NOAA's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, located in Miami , Florida . AOML's research spans hurricanes, coastal ecosystems, oceans, and human health, climate studies, global carbon systems, and ocean observations. AOML's organizational structure consists of an Office of the Director and three scientific research divisions, Physical Oceanography, Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems, and Hurricane Research. The Office of
1122-522: Is the annual update charts of the ongoing impact of changing conditions on the environment and community by NOAA. In 2019, it was compiled by 81 scientists from 12 nations. The Office of Marine and Aviation Operations is responsible for the fleet of NOAA ships, aircraft, and diving operations. It is the largest research fleet in the Federal government. Its personnel is made up of federal civil service employees and NOAA Corps Commissioned Officers . The office
1188-411: Is viewed as the practice of indigenous sovereignty and self-determination. Co-management under Section 119 includes the following activities: Alaska Nanuuq Commission (ANC) represents tribes for polar bears management with USFWS. In this partnership, the subsistence take of polar bear is legal according to MMPA, yet the prohibition is placed on taking females with cubs and harassment. Along with
1254-629: The Birmingham, Alabama office of the National Weather Service issued a tweet that appeared to contradict Trump, saying that Alabama "will NOT see any impacts from Dorian". On September 6, NOAA published a statement from an unidentified spokesperson supporting Trump's September 1 claim. The statement also labelled the Birmingham, Alabama branch of the National Weather Service's contradiction of Trump as incorrect. The New York Times reported that
1320-737: The Caribbean Sea ; however, this species is most prevalent near Florida (the Florida subspecies) and Puerto Rico (the Antillean subspecies). The Service's Jacksonville Field Office manages the Florida manatee , while the Boqueron Field Office manages the Antillean manatee . The polar bear, southern sea otter, marine otter, all three species of manatees, and the dugong are also concurrently listed under
1386-572: The Endangered Species Act (ESA). Amendments enacted in 1981 established conditions for permits to be granted to take marine mammals "incidentally" in the course of commercial fishing. In addition, the amendments provided additional conditions and procedures for transferring management authority to the States, and authorized appropriations through FY 1984. Policies created in 1982 The 1984 amendments established conditions to be satisfied as
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#17328528594811452-757: The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling , the Whaling Convention Act of 1949, the Interim Convention on the Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals, and the Fur Seal Act of 1966.” The MMC is also responsible for the review of the research programs conducted for the purpose of the MMPA as well as authorizing permits for the purpose of research, conservation or public display. If
1518-776: The Landsat satellite system. Since May 1998, NESDIS has operated the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites on behalf of the Air Force Weather Agency . New generations of satellites are developed to succeed the current polar orbiting and geosynchronous satellites, the Joint Polar Satellite System , and GOES-R , which launched in November 2016. NESDIS runs the Office of Projects, Planning, and Analysis (OPPA) formerly
1584-872: The Mussel Watch Contaminant Monitoring Program and the NOAA Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). There are two staff offices, the International Program Office and the Management and Budget Office. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) was created by NOAA to operate and manage the US environmental satellite programs, and manage NWS data and those of other government agencies and departments. NESDIS's National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) archives data collected by
1650-480: The NOAA , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services conduct stock assessments of marine mammal populations under their jurisdiction which include walrus , manatees , sea otters , and polar bears . They are also responsible for the creation and implementation of conservation plans which often occur in collaboration with industries which can potentially impact marine mammal populations of particular concern. The MMPA prohibits
1716-550: The NOAA Commissioned Corps . Project 2025 has proposed to get rid of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research , which would "dismantle" NOAA's research division. Since 1993, NOAA's administrative headquarters has been located at the Silver Spring Metro Center office complex in downtown Silver Spring, Maryland . The consolidated 1.2 million SF, four-building campus was constructed in 1993 and
1782-771: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Office of Law Enforcement in Silver Spring, Maryland , which is the primary site of marine resource law enforcement. NOAA's research, conducted through the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services that protect life and property and promote economic growth. Research, conducted in OAR laboratories and by extramural programs, focuses on enhancing our understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes, hurricanes, climate variability, solar flares, changes in
1848-590: The National Weather Service (NWS), the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) and the Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO). NOAA has more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library , the Office of Program Planning and Integration (PPI). The National Weather Service (NWS) is tasked with providing "weather, hydrologic and climate forecasts and warnings for
1914-409: The Birmingham, Alabama National Weather Service's contradiction of Trump. The second order came on September 4 after Trump displayed an August 29 map that was altered with a black marker to show that Hurricane Dorian may hit Alabama. On September 9, speaking at an Alabama National Weather Service (NWS) meeting the Director of the National Weather Service gave a speech supporting Birmingham NWS and said
1980-468: The Coast and Geodetic Survey's assets became a part of NOAA, NOAA based its own flag on that of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The NOAA flag is, in essence, the Coast and Geodetic Survey flag, with the NOAA logo—a circle divided by the silhouette of a seabird into an upper dark blue and a lower light blue section, but with the "NOAA" legend omitted—centered within the red triangle. NOAA ships in commission display
2046-659: The Director oversees the Laboratory's scientific programs, as well as its financial, administrative, computer, outreach/education, and facility management services. Research programs are augmented by the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies (CIMAS), a joint enterprise with the University of Miami's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. CIMAS enables AOML and university scientists to collaborate on research areas of mutual interest and facilitates
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2112-588: The MMC finds that the current conservation efforts are shown to be ineffective in protecting species identified under the MMPA, they are responsible for effectively communicating with federal officials such as the Secretaries of State , Commerce or the Interior the recommended measures needed to be taken to ensure the effectiveness of the MMPA and the protection of marine mammals under this act. These recommendations can come in
2178-577: The MMPA. The specific information that is included in all stock assessments are the geographic range of the stock being studied, current trends and productivity rates for the stock, potential biological removal levels which is defined under the MMPA as “the maximum number of animals, not including natural mortalities, that may be removed from a marine mammal stock while allowing that stock to reach or maintain its optimum sustainable population”, an estimation of mortality and injury rate caused by humans, potential threats to conservation efforts and current status of
2244-883: The Marine Mammal Protection Act through the implementation and enforcement of various policies and regulations to properly manage marine mammal populations. The NOAA does this through the identification of violations of the MMPA, coordinating efforts to aid stranded and entangled mammals, and conduct proper rehabilitation and release of injured marine mammals. The NOAA is also responsible for providing stock assessment reports on marine mammals under their jurisdiction which includes whales , dolphins , porpoises , seals , and sea lions . Stock assessment reports serve to identify trends in marine mammal populations, identify potential threats to said population, and whether current conservation efforts are effective and if adjustments need to be made to ensure effective enforcement of
2310-572: The NOAA September 6 statement was prompted by a threat from U.S. Commerce Secretary Wilbur Ross to fire high-level NOAA staff unless they supported Trump's claim. The Department of Commerce described this report as "false". Meanwhile, The Washington Post reported that NOAA had twice ordered National Weather Service employees not to provide "any opinion" on Hurricane Dorian and to "only stick with official National Hurricane Center forecasts". The first order came after Trump's September 1 comments and
2376-765: The NOAA, U.S. Navy , U.S. Air Force , the Federal Aviation Administration , and meteorological services around the world. It comprises the Center for Weather and Climate, previously NOAA's National Climatic Data Center , the National Coastal Data Development Center (NCDDC), the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), and the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)). In 1960, TIROS-1 , NASA's first owned and operated geostationary satellite,
2442-681: The Nixon Administration's Vietnam War policy. Nixon did not like Hickel's letter urging Nixon to listen to the Vietnam War demonstrators, and punished Hickel by not putting NOAA in the Interior Department. In 2007, NOAA celebrated 200 years of service in its role as successor to the U.S. Survey of the Coast . NOAA was officially formed in 1970. In 2021, NOAA had 11,833 civilian employees. Its research and operations are further supported by 321 uniformed service members, who make up
2508-739: The Office of Systems Development, the Office of Satellite Ground Systems (formerly the Office of Satellite Operations) the Office of Satellite and Project Operations, the Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR)], the Joint Polar Satellite System Program Office the GOES-R Program Office, the International & Interagency Affairs Office, the Office of Space Commerce and the Office of System Architecture and Advanced Planning. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), also known as NOAA Fisheries,
2574-670: The Republican conference that my friends don't want to fund programs that are not properly authorized," said Lucas. "NOAA is very important, so we need to get it authorized." NOAA works toward its mission through six major line offices: the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the National Ocean Service (NOS),
2640-534: The Service and the NOAA better implement the MMPA. Coordination between these three federal agencies is necessary in order to provide the best management practices for marine mammals. Under the MMPA, the Service is responsible for ensuring the protection of sea otters and marine otters, walruses , polar bears , three species of manatees , and dugongs . NOAA was given responsibility to conserve and manage pinnipeds including seals and sea lions and cetaceans such as whales and dolphins . The NOAA enforces
2706-462: The Service has appointed field staff dedicated to working with partners to conduct population censuses, assess population health, develop and implement conservation plans, promulgate regulations, and create cooperative relationships internationally. Various Marine Mammal Management offices are located on either coast. The Service's Marine Mammal Management office in Anchorage, Alaska is responsible for
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2772-687: The US Department of Commerce and as NOAA's interim administrator. Jacobs succeeded Timothy Gallaudet , who succeeded Benjamin Friedman. The three served in series as NOAA's interim administrator throughout the first Trump Administration . In October 2017, Barry Lee Myers , CEO of AccuWeather , was proposed to be the agency's administrator by the Trump Administration. After two years in the nomination process, on November 21, 2019, Myers withdrew his name from consideration due to health concerns. NOAA
2838-552: The US domestic standards. Yet it is difficult to expect this comparability from all exporting countries due to lack of fisheries records on bycatches and standardized protective measures which is causing unintentional harms. The Act emphasizes the recovery and prevention of the depletion of strategic marine mammal stocks. Under Section 118, Take Reduction Plan aims within six months of implementation to reduce incidental mortality and severe injury from fishery and approach zero mortality rate in five years. The Plan includes: The plan
2904-434: The United States, its territories, adjacent waters and ocean areas, for the protection of life and property and the enhancement of the national economy", according to NOAA. This is done through a collection of national and regional centers, 13 river forecast centers (RFCs), and more than 120 local weather forecast offices (WFOs). They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts , advisories, watches, and warnings on
2970-412: The attempt at such." The MMPA defines harassment as "any act of pursuit, torment or annoyance which has the potential to either: a. injure a marine mammal in the wild, or b. disturb a marine mammal by causing disruption of behavioral patterns, which includes, but is not limited to, migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering." The MMPA provides for enforcement of its prohibitions, and for
3036-553: The co-management, Alaska Scientific Review Group is set up, with indigenous entities involved, to advise stock assessment and revise method for assessment. Alaska Beluga Whale Committee (ABWC) was founded in 1988 to manage beluga subsistence hunting in Alaska. After the MMPA amended, ABWC starts to develop a co-management plan with National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) aiming to become an "umbrella organization concerned with statewide, national and international affairs. " With
3102-504: The form of implementation of international agreements, revisions to the endangered and threatened species list as deemed appropriate under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 , and provisions that may need to be made to the MMPA. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services are responsible for managing the take through the use of permits and other authorization as well as financially supporting efforts to help marine mammals that fall victim to stranding and relevant research efforts. Similar to
3168-526: The founding from NMFS, ABWC focus on facilitating scientific communication for the public, harvest monitoring, beluga tracking, aerial survey, genetics-based stock studies. The regional groups of ABWC are designate to "develop local management plans, hunting guide-lines and means of enforcement. " The Marine Mammal Protection Act has conservation benefits beyond US boundaries. The Act requires imported fisheries products to minimize incidental mortality and severe injury of marine mammals aligning to
3234-473: The health and stability of the marine ecosystem. The goal is to obtain an optimum sustainable population within the carrying capacity of the habitat. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (abbreviated as NOAA / ˈ n oʊ . ə / NOH -ə ) is an American scientific and regulatory agency charged with forecasting weather , monitoring oceanic and atmospheric conditions, charting
3300-634: The issuance of regulations to implement its legislative goals. Authority to manage the MMPA was divided between the Secretary of the Interior through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), and the Secretary of Commerce , which is delegated to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Subsequently, a third federal agency, the Marine Mammal Commission (MMC), was established to review existing policies and make recommendations to
3366-642: The management and conservation of polar bears , Pacific walruses , and northern sea otters in Alaska. Northern sea otters present in Washington state are managed by the Western Washington Field Office, while southern sea otters residing in California are managed by the Ventura Field Office. West Indian manatee populations extend from Texas to Rhode Island , and are also present in
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#17328528594813432-432: The ozone, air pollution transport and dispersion , El Niño / La Niña events, fisheries productivity, ocean currents, deep sea thermal vents, and coastal ecosystem health. NOAA research also develops innovative technologies and observing systems. The NOAA Research network consists of seven internal research laboratories, extramural research at 30 Sea Grant university and research programs, six undersea research centers,
3498-749: The participation of students and visiting scientists. AOML is a member of a unique community of marine research and educational institutions located on Virginia Key in Miami, Florida. In 1977, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) deployed the first successful moored equatorial current meter – the beginning of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean , TAO, array. In 1984, the Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere program (TOGA) program began. The Arctic Report Card
3564-432: The seas , conducting deep-sea exploration , and managing fishing and protection of marine mammals and endangered species in the US exclusive economic zone . The agency is part of the United States Department of Commerce and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland . NOAA traces its history back to multiple agencies, some of which are among the earliest in the federal government: The most direct predecessor of NOAA
3630-399: The stock and a minimum population estimation. These stock assessments are created through research conducted by programs at NOAA research science centers which are located in Hawaii, Massachusetts, Alaska, Florida, Washington, and California. Research contributions are also made by researchers not affiliated with the previously mentioned programs as well. The Marine Mammal Commission (MMC)
3696-624: The take and exploitation of any marine mammal without appropriate authorization, which may only be given by the Service. Permits may be issued for scientific research, public display, and the importation/exportation of marine mammal parts and products upon determination by the Service that the issuance is consistent with the MMPA's regulations. The two types of permits issued by the National Marine Fisheries Service 's Office of Protected Resources are incidental and directed. Incidental permits, which allow for some unintentional taking of small numbers of marine mammal, are granted to U.S. citizens who engage in
3762-405: The team "stopped public panic" and "ensured public safety". He said that when Birmingham issued their instructions they were not aware that the calls they were receiving were a result of Trump's tweet. The acting chief scientist and assistant administrator for the ocean and atmospheric research said he is "pursuing the potential violations" of the agency's scientific integrity policy. The NOAA flag
3828-460: The title MMPA . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MMPA&oldid=1170499065 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Marine Mammal Protection Act MMPA
3894-472: The transport, dispersion , transformation and removal of pollutants from the ambient atmosphere. The emphasis of the ARL's work is on data interpretation, technology development and transfer. The specific goal of ARL research is to improve and eventually to institutionalize prediction of trends, dispersion of air pollutant plumes , air quality , atmospheric deposition, and related variables. The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML),
3960-493: Was an extremely powerful and destructive tropical cyclone that devastated the northwestern Bahamas and caused significant damage to the Southeastern United States and Atlantic Canada in September 2019. By September 1, NOAA had issued a statement saying that the "current forecast path of Dorian does not include Alabama". However, on that date, President Donald Trump tweeted that Alabama, among other states, "will most likely be hit (much) harder than anticipated". Shortly thereafter,
4026-613: Was created by an executive order in 1970 and has never been established in law, despite its critical role. In January 2023, The Washington Post reported that Congressman Frank Lucas , the new chair of the House Science, Space and Technology Committee, had released draft legislation to make NOAA an independent agency, rather than it being part of the Commerce Department. Lucas' push was in response to Republican leaders who had signaled plans to slash funding for agencies and programs that continued to receive annual appropriations, but had not been reauthorized by Congress. "It's been made quite clear in
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#17328528594814092-421: Was created in 1972 through the MMPA to serve as an organization that provides oversight over conservation policies, regulations and programs being carried out to ensure they are carried out effectively by the federal agencies responsible for them. Their responsibilities also include ensuring the United States adhere to international agreements that relate to marine mammal conservation “including, but not limited to,
4158-451: Was initiated in 1871 with a primary goal of the research, protection, management, and restoration of commercial and recreational fisheries and their habitat, and protected species. The NMFS operates twelve headquarters offices, five regional offices, six fisheries science centers, and more than 20 laboratories throughout the United States and U.S. territories, which are the sites of research and management of marine resources. The NMFS operates
4224-401: Was launched. Since 1966, NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites (POES). Since 1974, it has operated geosynchronous satellites (GOES). In 1979, NOAA's first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched. Current operational satellites include NOAA-15 , NOAA-18 , NOAA-19 , GOES 13 , GOES 14 , GOES 15 , Jason-2 and DSCOVR . In 1983, NOAA assumed operational responsibility for
4290-428: Was signed into law on October 21, 1972, by President Richard Nixon and took effect 60 days later on December 21, 1972. It prohibits the "taking" of marine mammals , and enacts a moratorium on the import, export, and sale of any marine mammal, along with any marine mammal part or product within the United States . The Act defines "take" as "the act of hunting , killing, capture, and/or harassment of any marine mammal; or,
4356-416: Was the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA), into which several existing scientific agencies such as the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey , the Weather Bureau and the uniformed Corps were absorbed in 1965. NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No. 4, and formed on October 3, 1970, after U.S. President Richard Nixon proposed creating
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