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115-474: The Meiji government created the first Ministry of Education in 1871. In January 2001, the former Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture and the former Science and Technology Agency  [ ja ] ( 科学技術庁 , Kagaku-gijutsu-chō ) merged to become the present MEXT. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology currently is led by the minister of education, culture, sports, science and technology . Under that position

230-400: A digital filter to demodulate it to a high-bit digital output at a lower sampling-frequency. A delta-sigma DAC (e.g. Figure 1 bottom) encodes a high-resolution digital input signal into a lower-resolution but higher sample-frequency signal that may then be mapped to voltages and smoothed with an analog filter for demodulation. In both cases, the temporary use of a low bit depth signal at

345-508: A representative democracy . The samurai lost their status as the only class with military privileges. However, during the Meiji period, most leaders in Japanese society (politics, business and military) were ex-samurai or descendants of samurai. The 1889 Meiji Constitution made relatively small concessions to civil rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of

460-498: A Chōshū native who has been credited with the founding of the modern Japanese army and was to become the first constitutional Prime Minister . The Supreme War Council developed a German-style general staff system with a chief of staff who had direct access to the Emperor and who could operate independently of the army minister and civilian officials. The Constitution of the Empire of Japan

575-464: A cabinet composed mostly of genrō who wanted to establish a government party to control the House of Representatives. Although not fully realized, the trend toward party politics was well established. On its return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred people from the old court nobility, former daimyo, and samurai who had provided valuable service to

690-456: A constitutional form of government since before 1874, and several proposals for constitutional guarantees had been drafted. While acknowledging the realities of political pressure, however, the oligarchy was determined to keep control. Thus, modest steps were taken. The Osaka Conference in 1875 resulted in the reorganization of government with an independent judiciary and an appointed Chamber of Elders (genrōin) tasked with reviewing proposals for

805-453: A culture in the country that encourages participation in cultural activities and the arts. Their goal is to achieve a "Nation Based on Culture and Art". These are the segments of the ministry with focus on the science and technology portions of organization. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology's site regards the duties of the Science and Technology Policy Bureau as

920-441: A delta modulator, so that the output carries information corresponding to the amplitude of the input signal instead of just its derivative. This also has the benefit of incorporating desirable noise shaping into the conversion process, to deliberately move quantization noise to frequencies higher than the signal. Since the accumulated error signal is lowpass filtered by the delta-sigma modulator's integrator before being quantized,

1035-428: A delta-sigma ADC is occasionally used directly in signal processing or as a representation for signal storage (e.g., Super Audio CD stores the raw output of a 1-bit delta-sigma modulator). While this article focuses on synchronous modulation, which requires a precise clock for quantization, asynchronous delta-sigma modulation instead runs without a clock. When transmitting an analog signal directly, all noise in

1150-412: A feedback loop containing an integrator with multi-bit quantization shown in its Fig 1. Wooley's "The Evolution of Oversampling Analog-to-Digital Converters" gives more history and references to relevant patents. Some avenues of variation (which may be applied in different combinations) are the modulator's order, the quantizer's bitdepth, the manner of decimation , and the oversampling ratio. Noise of

1265-482: A function of time corresponds to simply multiplication by 1 s {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\text{s}}}} in Laplace notation. The integrator is assumed to be an ideal integrator to keep the math simple, but a real integrator (or similar filter) may have a more complicated expression. The process of quantization is approximated as addition with a quantization error noise source. The noise

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1380-501: A general statement of the aims of the Meiji leaders to boost morale and win financial support for the new government . Its five provisions consisted of: Implicit in the Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the bakufu (a shōgun ' s direct administration including officers), and a move toward more democratic participation in government. To implement the Charter Oath,

1495-426: A higher sampling frequency simplifies circuit design and takes advantage of the efficiency and high accuracy in time of digital electronics . Primarily because of its cost efficiency and reduced circuit complexity, this technique has found increasing use in modern electronic components such as DACs, ADCs, frequency synthesizers , switched-mode power supplies and motor controllers . The coarsely-quantized output of

1610-439: A known fixed rate, is very easy to generate, transmit, and accurately regenerate at the receiver, given only that the timing and sign of the pulses can be recovered. Given such a sequence of pulses from a delta-sigma modulator, the original waveform can be reconstructed with adequate precision. The use of PDM as a signal representation is an alternative to PCM. Alternatively, the high frequency PDM can later be downsampled through

1725-638: A legislature. The Emperor declared that "constitutional government shall be established in gradual stages" as he ordered the Council of Elders to draft a constitution. Three years later, the Conference of Prefectural Governors established elected prefectural assemblies. Although limited in their authority, these assemblies represented a move in the direction of representative government at the national level, and by 1880 assemblies also had been formed in villages and towns. In 1880 delegates from twenty-four prefectures held

1840-548: A much wider frequency range. The benefit is that the total amount of noise in the frequency band of interest is dramatically smaller for oversampling converters (just the small green area), than for a Nyquist converter (yellow + green total area). Figure 4 shows how ΔΣ modulation shapes noise to further reduce the amount of quantization noise in the baseband in exchange for increasing noise at higher frequencies (where it can be easily filtered out). The curves of higher-order ΔΣ modulators achieve even greater reduction of noise in

1955-446: A multi-bit digital signal . Such higher-bit methods seek accuracy in amplitude directly, but require extremely precise components and so may suffer from poor linearity. Oversampling converters instead produce a lower-bitdepth result at a much higher sampling frequency. This can achieve comparable quality by taking advantage of: Another key aspect given by oversampling is the frequency/resolution tradeoff. The decimation filter put after

2070-555: A national convention to establish the Kokkai Kisei Dōmei . Although the government was not opposed to parliamentary rule, confronted with the drive for "people's rights", it continued to try to control the political situation. New laws in 1875 prohibited press criticism of the government or discussion of national laws. The Public Assembly Law (1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servants and requiring police permission for all meetings. Within

2185-614: A powerful Tosa leader who had resigned from the Council of State over the Korean affair in 1873. Itagaki sought peaceful, rather than rebellious, means to gain a voice in government. He started a school and a movement aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy and a legislative assembly . Such movements were called The Freedom and People's Rights Movement . Itagaki and others wrote the Tosa Memorial  [ ja ] in 1874, criticizing

2300-482: A processed called decimation and requantized to convert it into a multi-bit PCM code at lower sampling frequency closer to the Nyquist rate of the frequency band of interest. The seminal paper combining feedback with oversampling to achieve delta modulation was by F. de Jager of Philips Research Laboratories in 1952. The principle of improving the resolution of a coarse quantizer by use of feedback, which

2415-460: A rather short-lived constitution with eleven articles was drawn up in June 1868. Besides providing for a new Council of State , legislative bodies, and systems of ranks for nobles and officials, it limited office tenure to four years, allowed public balloting, provided for a new taxation system, and ordered new local administrative rules. The Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow

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2530-492: A result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas, the changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of Emperor Meiji . It was preceded by the Keiō era and was succeeded by the Taishō era , upon the accession of Emperor Taishō . The rapid modernization during

2645-914: A single pole at s = -1 {\displaystyle {\text{s}}={\text{-1}}} in the complex plane , so it effectively acts as a 1 -order low-pass filter on the input signal. (Note: its cutoff frequency could be adjusted as desired by including multiplication by a constant in the loop). To understand how the system affects the noise only, the input instead is temporarily imagined to be 0: [ 0 − Δ Σ M noise ( s ) ] ⋅ 1 s + noise ( s ) = Δ Σ M noise ( s ) , {\displaystyle [0-\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})]\cdot {\frac {1}{\text{s}}}+{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})=\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})\,,} which can be rearranged to yield

2760-442: A single zero at s = 0 {\displaystyle {\text{s}}=0} and a single pole at s = -1 , {\displaystyle {\text{s}}={\text{-1}},} so the system effectively acts as a high-pass filter on the noise that starts at 0 at DC , then gradually rises until it reaches the cutoff frequency, and then levels off. The synchronous ΔΣ DAC's modulation loop (Figure 6) meanwhile

2875-485: Is an oversampling method for encoding signals into low bit depth digital signals at a very high sample-frequency as part of the process of delta-sigma analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs). Delta-sigma modulation achieves high quality by utilizing a negative feedback loop during quantization to the lower bit depth that continuously corrects quantization errors and moves quantization noise to higher frequencies well above

2990-404: Is an earlier related low-bit oversampling method that also uses negative feedback , but only encodes the derivative of the signal (its delta ) rather than its amplitude . The result is a stream of marks and spaces representing up or down of the signal's movement, which must be integrated to reconstruct the signal's amplitude. Delta modulation has several drawbacks. The differentiation alters

3105-474: Is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day-battle, Saigō's nearly ten thousand strong army battled hand-to-hand the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly four thousand casualties during this engagement. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō's was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end

3220-485: Is in charge of enhancing the educational development of students progressing through preschool to upper secondary schools, or any equivalent. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology describes the Higher Education Bureau as a department that focuses on promoting the education of undergraduate and graduate schools. This includes overseeing permission of grants, teacher quality, as well as

3335-459: Is in discrete-time and so its analysis is in the z-domain. It is very similar to the above analysis in Laplace domain and produces similar curves. Note: many sources also analyze a ΔΣ ADC's modulation loop in the z-domain, which implicitly treats the continuous analog input as a discrete-time signal. This may be a valid approximation provided that the input signal is already bandlimited and can be assumed to be not changing on time scales higher than

3450-839: Is often assumed to be white and independent of the signal, though as quantization (signal processing) § Additive noise model explains that is not always a valid assumption (particularly for low-bit quantization). Since the system and Laplace transform are linear, the total behavior of this system can be analyzed by separating how it affects the input from how it affects the noise: Δ Σ M total ( s ) = Δ Σ M in ( s ) + Δ Σ M noise ( s ) . {\displaystyle \Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{total}}({\text{s}})=\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{in}}({\text{s}})+\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})\,.} To understand how

3565-523: Is often used to label integrators in block diagrams. In a ΔΣ DAC, the quantizer may be called a requantizer or a digital-to-digital converter (DDC), because its input is already digital and quantized but is simply reducing from a higher bitdepth to a lower bitdepth digital signal. This is represented in the z-domain by another z -1 {\displaystyle {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}} delay stage in series with adding quantization noise. (Note: some sources may have swapped ordering of

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3680-659: Is one of three ministries that run the JET Programme . It also offers the Monbukagakusho Scholarship , also known as the MEXT or Monbu-shō scholarship. The Ministry sets standards for the romanization of Japanese . In cooperation with the Japanese Student Services Organization (JASSO), the ministry further funds the prestigious JASSO scholarship for international students which has been described as

3795-712: Is represented in the z-domain by feeding back a summing node's output y ( z ) {\displaystyle y({\text{z}})} though a 1-clock cycle delay stage (notated as z -1 {\displaystyle {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}} ) into another input of the summing node, yielding y ( z ) = x ( z ) + y ( z ) ⋅ z -1 {\displaystyle y({\text{z}})=x({\text{z}})+y({\text{z}})\cdot {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}} . Its transfer function 1 1 − z -1 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{1-{\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}}}}

3910-532: Is that adequate amounts of dither cannot be used in the feedback loop, so distortion can be heard under some conditions (more discussion at Direct Stream Digital § DSD vs. PCM ). Decimation is strongly associated with delta-sigma modulation, but is distinct and outside the scope of this article. The original 1962 paper didn't describe decimation. Oversampled data in the early days was sent as is. The proposal to decimate oversampled delta-sigma data using digital filtering before converting it into PCM audio

4025-471: Is the basic principle of delta-sigma conversion, was first described in a 1954-filed patent by C. Chapin Cutler of Bell Labs . It was not named as such until a 1962 paper by Inose et al. of University of Tokyo , which came up with the idea of adding a filter in the forward path of the delta modulator. However, Charles B Brahm of United Aircraft Corp in 1961 filed a patent "Feedback integrating system" with

4140-671: Is the main point of contact between Japan's National Commission and United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The collective goal of the two organizations is to create mutual, sustainable development through education, science, and culture. The Department of Facilities Planning and Disaster Prevention is in charge of focusing on the ability of school facilities to reduce damage caused by disasters such as earthquakes. On top of this, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology's site, also describes part of their duties as promoting universities' endeavors in educational and research activities. These are

4255-480: Is the source of idle tones and pattern noise in delta-sigma converters. However, adding dithering noise (Figure 3) reduces such distortion by making quantization noise more random. ΔΣ ADCs reduce the amount of this noise in the baseband by spreading it out and shaping it so it is mostly in higher frequencies. It can then be easily filtered out with inexpensive digital filters, without high-precision analog circuits needed by Nyquist ADCs. Quantization noise in

4370-557: Is twice the original signal's maximum frequency f 0 {\displaystyle f_{0}} ). Since oversampling is typically done in powers of two, d {\displaystyle d} represents how many times OSR is doubled. As illustrated in Figure ;4, the total amount of quantization noise is the same both in a Nyquist converter (yellow + green areas) and in an oversampling converter (blue + green areas). But oversampling converters distribute that noise over

4485-705: Is two state ministers, two parliamentary vice-ministers, and administrative vice-minister, and two deputy ministers. Beyond that the organization is divided as follows. The Minister's Secretariat is the department that manages general policies that affect the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology as a whole. These functions include many administrative jobs such as auditing policies, community relations, and overall human resource management for domestic and international relations alike. The Director-General for International Affairs, according to Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology's site,

4600-773: The z -1 {\displaystyle {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}} and additive noise stages.) The modulator's z-domain equation arranged like Figure 6 is: [ in ( z ) − Δ Σ M ( z ) ] ⋅ 1 1 − z -1 ⋅ z -1 + noise ( z ) = Δ Σ M ( z ) , {\displaystyle [{\text{in}}({\text{z}})-\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}({\text{z}})]\cdot {\frac {1}{1-{\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}}}\cdot {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}+{\text{noise}}({\text{z}})=\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}({\text{z}})\,,} which can be rearranged to express

4715-547: The Rikken Kaishintō (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British-style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the Rikken Teiseitō (Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government restrictions. The restrictions hindered

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4830-646: The United States Constitution as "too liberal", and the British system as too unwieldy, and having a parliament with too much control over the monarchy; the French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism. Ito was put in charge of the new Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems in 1884, and the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Ito as prime minister. The positions of chancellor (or chief-minister), minister of

4945-1293: The "Japanese Fulbright program". It offers financial support of up to ¥80,000 per month for the top 1% of students of any foreign country for studies at a Japanese university. MEXT provides the Children Living Abroad and Returnees Internet (CLARINET) which provides information to Japanese families living abroad. MEXT sends teachers around the world to serve in nihonjin gakkō , full-time Japanese international schools in foreign countries. The Japanese government also sends full-time teachers to hoshū jugyō kō supplementary schools that offer lessons that are similar to those of nihonjin gakkō or those which each have student bodies of 100 students or greater. In addition, MEXT subsidizes weekend schools which each have over 100 students. Japanese Government MEXT scholarship 2022 Japanese Government MEXT Scholarship 2021 Embassy Recommendation. The scholarship programs are for students who wish to study in Japan as Research Student (Masters/Ph.D./ Research), Undergraduate student, College of Technology student, or Specialized Training student. Meiji period The Meiji era ( 明治時代 , Meiji jidai , [meꜜː(d)ʑi] )

5060-550: The "civilized countries of the West", leaving behind the "hopelessly backward" Asian neighbors, namely Korea and China . This essay certainly encouraged the economic and technological rise of Japan in the Meiji era, but it also may have laid the intellectual foundations for later Japanese colonialism in the region. The Meiji era saw a flowering of public discourse on the direction of Japan. Works like Nakae Chōmin 's A Discourse by Three Drunkards on Government debated how best to blend

5175-520: The 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei , to the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 122nd emperor. This coincided with pressure on the ruling shogunate to modernize Japan, combining modern advances with traditional values. Mutsuhito was sympathetic to these ideas, leading to a call for the restoration of the governing power to the emperor. On November 9, 1867, then- shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to

5290-590: The Asian mainland and construction of railroads, shipyards, munitions factories, mines, textile manufacturing facilities, factories, and experimental agriculture stations. Greatly concerned about national security, the leaders made significant efforts at military modernization, which included establishing a small standing army, a large reserve system, and compulsory militia service for all men. Foreign military systems were studied, foreign advisers, especially French ones, were brought in, and Japanese cadets sent abroad to Europe and

5405-553: The Conscription Law of 1873, and all the reforms and progress, the new Japanese army was still untested. That all changed in 1877, when Saigō Takamori led the last rebellion of the samurai in Kyūshū. In February 1877, Saigō left Kagoshima with a small contingent of soldiers on a journey to Tokyo. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō's army as they attempted to force their way into

5520-571: The Emperor were organized into a new peerage, the Kazoku , consisting of five ranks: prince, marquis , count , viscount , and baron . In the transition between the Edo period and the Meiji era, the Ee ja nai ka movement, a spontaneous outbreak of ecstatic behavior, took place. In 1885, noted public intellectual Yukichi Fukuzawa wrote the influential essay " Leaving Asia ", arguing that Japan should orient itself at

5635-577: The Emperor, and "put his prerogatives at the Emperor’s disposal", formally stepping down ten days later. Imperial restoration occurred the next year on January 3, 1868, with the formation of the new government . The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate , and a new era, Meiji , was proclaimed. The first reform was the promulgation of the Five Charter Oath in 1868,

5750-812: The Laplace domain) or z = A e j ϕ {\displaystyle {\text{z}}=Ae^{j\phi }} (in the z-domain). Figure 5 represents the 1 -order ΔΣ ADC modulation loop (from Figure 1) as a continuous-time linear time-invariant system in the Laplace domain with the equation: [ in ( s ) − Δ Σ M ( s ) ] ⋅ 1 s + noise ( s ) = Δ Σ M ( s ) . {\displaystyle [{\text{in}}({\text{s}})-\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}({\text{s}})]\cdot {\frac {1}{\text{s}}}+{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})=\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}({\text{s}})\,.} The Laplace transform of integration of

5865-473: The Meiji era adapted many aspects of Victorian taste, as seen in the construction of Western-style pavilions and reception rooms called yōkan or yōma in their homes. These parts of Meiji homes were displayed in popular magazines of the time, such as Ladies' Graphic, which portrayed the often empty rooms of the homes of the aristocracy of all levels, including the imperial palaces. Integrating Western cultural forms with an assumed, untouched native Japanese spirit

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5980-495: The Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from the former samurai class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously Saigō Takamori , who led the Satsuma Rebellion . However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as Itō Hirobumi and Itagaki Taisuke . On February 3, 1867,

6095-639: The United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin). In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which

6210-801: The United States to attend military and naval schools. In 1854, after US Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry forced the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa , Japanese elites took the position that they needed to modernize the state's military capacities, or risk further coercion from Western powers. In 1868, the Japanese government established the Tokyo Arsenal. The same year, Ōmura Masujirō established Japan's first military academy in Kyoto. Ōmura further proposed military billets be filled by all classes of people including farmers and merchants. The shōgun class, not happy with Ōmura's views on conscription, assassinated him

6325-418: The West. The Industrial Revolution in Japan occurred during the Meiji era. The industrial revolution began around 1870 as Meiji era leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to

6440-447: The baseband frequency range (from DC to 2 f 0 {\displaystyle 2f_{0}} ) may be reduced by increasing the oversampling ratio (OSR) defined by where f s {\displaystyle f_{\mathrm {s} }} is the sampling frequency and 2 f 0 {\displaystyle 2f_{0}} is the Nyquist rate (the minimum sampling rate needed to avoid aliasing, which

6555-628: The baseband. These curves are derived using mathematical tools called the Laplace transform (for continuous-time signals , e.g. in an ADC's modulation loop) or the Z-transform (for discrete-time signals , e.g. in a DAC's modulation loop). These transforms are useful for converting harder math from the time domain into simpler math in the complex frequency domain of the complex variable s = σ + j ω {\displaystyle {\text{s}}=\sigma +j\omega } (in

6670-446: The bit depth of its quantizer. A quantizer that distinguishes between N-levels is called a log 2 N bit quantizer. For example, a simple comparator has 2 levels and so is 1 bit quantizer; a 3-level quantizer is called a 1.5 bit quantizer; a 4-level quantizer is a 2-bit quantizer; a 5-level quantizer is called a 2.5-bit quantizer. Higher bit quantizers inherently produce less quantization noise. One criticism of 1-bit quantization

6785-411: The castle. Rather than leave an enemy behind him, Saigō laid siege to the castle. Two days later, Saigō's rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō's rebels in a frontal assault at what now

6900-607: The current organization. Nonetheless, each department of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology researches programs and institutions to fund. During this research, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology concluded there were many intertwined dependencies between family homes, their environment, and how it impacts a child's growth and maturity. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology have also been responsible in directly, although not fully, funding research into delta-sigma modulation , which in summary describes

7015-561: The department in charge of the promotion of science and technology in the country. The scope of the department includes students as well as established professionals. The Research Promotion Bureau is a department that focuses on development of scientific research, as well as research in fields including technology and physics. The Research and Development Bureau is slightly different from the Research Promotion Bureau as this department focuses on social problems including energy and

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7130-440: The environment. Consequentially, this department would focus on exploration in space and deep sea. While the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology currently contains multiple agencies, primarily a congregation of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, it actually began as the Ministry of Education. Over the years, Japan separately created each of the agencies that would eventually combine to make

7245-556: The establishment of a national assembly in 1890 and dismissing Okuma. Rejecting the British model, Iwakura and other conservatives borrowed heavily from the Prussian constitutional system . One of the Meiji oligarchy, Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909), a Chōshū native long involved in government affairs, was charged with drafting Japan's constitution. He led a constitutional study mission abroad in 1882, spending most of his time in Germany. He rejected

7360-449: The final engagement with Imperial forces which resulted in the deaths of the remaining forty samurai including Saigō, who, having suffered a fatal bullet wound in the abdomen, was honorably beheaded by his retainer. The national army's victory validated the current course of the modernization of the Japanese army as well as ended the era of the samurai. Delta-sigma modulation Delta-sigma ( ΔΣ ; or sigma-delta , ΣΔ ) modulation

7475-502: The following transfer function : Δ Σ M in ( s ) in ( s ) = 1 s 1 + 1 s = 1 s + 1 . {\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{in}}({\text{s}})}{{\text{in}}({\text{s}})}}={\frac {\tfrac {1}{\text{s}}}{1+{\tfrac {1}{\text{s}}}}}={\frac {1}{{\text{s}}+1}}\,.} This transfer function has

7590-480: The following transfer function: Δ Σ M noise ( s ) noise ( s ) = 1 1 + 1 s = s s + 1 . {\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})}{{\text{noise}}({\text{s}})}}={\frac {1}{1+{\tfrac {1}{\text{s}}}}}={\frac {s}{{\text{s}}+1}}\,.} This transfer function has

7705-580: The following year. In 1870, Japan expanded its military production base by opening another arsenal in Osaka. The Osaka Arsenal was responsible for the production of machine guns and ammunition. Also, four gunpowder facilities were opened at this site. Japan's production capacity gradually expanded. In 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and Saigō Jūdō , both new field marshals, founded the Corps of the Imperial Guards. Also, in

7820-412: The genrō made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genrō, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically. Throughout the period, however, political problems usually were solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever-larger role in the political process as a result. Between 1891 and 1895, Ito served as Prime Minister with

7935-464: The government included the creation of a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conductive to an advanced capitalist economy took time, but was completed by the 1890s, by which time the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. The Land Tax Reform of 1873

8050-578: The graphing of analog-digital information to aid in the conversion of the two means. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, were able to get their funding increased successfully through the years. They did so with the aid of one of their subgroups, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science . The additional funds were likely aided in approval due to their source coming from national bonds rather than taxes. The programs, funded by

8165-432: The increased budget, include projects in new materials, molecular-scale surface dynamics, next-generation process technology, computer science , synthesis -based chemical engineering science, micro-mechatronics ( micromachinery ), biotechnology , human genome research, cell signaling , bioinformatics , brain research , Structural biology , life sciences , developmental biology , and biomedical engineering . MEXT

8280-582: The left , and minister of the right , which had existed since the seventh century as advisory positions to the Emperor, were all abolished. In their place, the Privy Council was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution and to advise the Emperor. To further strengthen the authority of the State, the Supreme War Council was established under the leadership of Yamagata Aritomo (1838–1922),

8395-427: The modulator and decimator. Decimation filters most commonly used for ΔΣ ADCs, in order of increasing complexity and quality, are: When a signal is quantized, the resulting signal can be approximated by addition of white noise with approximately equal intensity across the entire spectrum. In reality, the quantization noise is, of course, not independent of the signal and this dependence results in limit cycles and

8510-401: The modulator not only filters the whole sampled signal in the band of interest (cutting the noise at higher frequencies), but also reduces the sampling rate, and hence the representable frequency range, of the signal, while increasing the sample amplitude resolution. This improvement in amplitude resolution is obtained by a sort of averaging of the higher-data-rate bitstream. Delta modulation

8625-491: The national government. Officials from the favored former han, such as Satsuma , Chōshū , Tosa , and Hizen staffed the new ministries. Formerly old court nobles , and lower-ranking samurai, replaced bakufu appointees and daimyo as a new ruling class appeared. Inasmuch as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a Shinto -oriented state much like it

8740-401: The new business environment. The industrial economy continued to expand rapidly, until about 1920, due to inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments. By World War I, Japan had become a major industrial nation. Undeterred by opposition, the Meiji leaders continued to modernize the nation through government-sponsored telegraph cable links to all major Japanese cities and

8855-490: The new influences coming from the West with local Japanese culture. Grassroots movements like the Freedom and People's Rights Movement called for the establishment of a formal legislature, civil rights, and greater pluralism in the Japanese political system. Journalists, politicians, and writers actively participated in the movement, which attracted an array of interest groups, including women's rights activists. The elite class of

8970-580: The new name for Edo . In a move critical for the consolidation of the new regime, most daimyōs voluntarily surrendered their land and census records to the Emperor in the abolition of the Han system , symbolizing that the land and people were under the Emperor's jurisdiction. Confirmed in their hereditary positions, the daimyo became governors, and the central government assumed their administrative expenses and paid samurai stipends. The han were replaced with prefectures in 1871, and authority continued to flow to

9085-800: The noise. Without getting into the mathematical details, cascading Θ {\displaystyle \Theta } integrators to create an Θ th {\displaystyle \Theta ^{\text{th}}} -order modulator results in: Δ Σ M Θ ( z ) = in ( z ) ⋅ z -1 + noise ( z ) ⋅ ( 1 − z -1 ) Θ . {\displaystyle \Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\Theta }({\text{z}})={\text{in}}({\text{z}})\cdot {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}+{\text{noise}}({\text{z}})\cdot (1-{\text{z}}^{\text{-1}})^{\Theta }\,.} Since this first difference backwards filter

9200-407: The old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title— Meiji , or Enlightened Rule—to mark the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. To further dramatize the new order, the capital was relocated from Kyoto , where it had been situated since 794, to Tokyo (Eastern Capital),

9315-437: The original signal's bandwidth . Subsequent low-pass filtering for demodulation easily removes this high frequency noise and time averages to achieve high accuracy in amplitude which can be ultimately encoded as pulse-code modulation (PCM). Both ADCs and DACs can employ delta-sigma modulation. A delta-sigma ADC (e.g. Figure 1 top) encodes an analog signal using high-frequency delta-sigma modulation and then applies

9430-493: The output in terms of the input and noise: Δ Σ M ( z ) = in ( z ) ⋅ z -1 + noise ( z ) ⋅ ( 1 − z -1 ) . {\displaystyle \Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}({\text{z}})={\text{in}}({\text{z}})\cdot {\text{z}}^{\text{-1}}+{\text{noise}}({\text{z}})\cdot (1-{\text{z}}^{\text{-1}})\,.} The input simply comes out of

9545-466: The pace of reform after having rejoined the Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other democratic proponents into the nationwide Aikokusha (Society of Patriots) to push for representative government in 1878. In 1881, in an action for which he is best known, Itagaki helped found the Jiyūtō (Liberal Party), which favored French political doctrines. In 1882, Ōkuma Shigenobu established

9660-536: The political parties and led to divisions within and among them. The Jiyūtō, which had opposed the Kaishinto, was disbanded in 1884 and Ōkuma resigned as Kaishintō president. Government leaders, long preoccupied with violent threats to stability and the serious leadership split over the Korean affair, generally agreed that constitutional government should someday be established. The Chōshū leader Kido Takayoshi had favored

9775-512: The political process. The Emperor shared his authority and gave rights and liberties to his subjects. It provided for the Imperial Diet (Teikoku Gikai), composed of a popularly elected House of Representatives with a very limited franchise of male citizens who were over twenty-five years of age and paid fifteen yen in national taxes (approximately 1% of the population). The House of Peers was composed of nobility and imperial appointees. A cabinet

9890-808: The purpose. In 1871, the Office of Shinto Worship ( ja:神祇省 ) was established, ranking even above the Council of State in importance. The kokutai ideas of the Mito school were embraced, and the divine ancestry of the Imperial House was emphasized. The government supported Shinto teachers, a small but important move. Although the Office of Shinto Worship was demoted in 1872, by 1877 the Home Ministry controlled all Shinto shrines and certain Shinto sects were given state recognition. Shinto

10005-531: The quantizer can be further shaped by replacing the quantizer itself with another ΔΣ modulator. This creates a 2 -order modulator, which can be rearranged in a cascaded fashion (Figure 2). This process can be repeated to increase the order even more. While 1 -order modulators are unconditionally stable, stability analysis must be performed for higher-order noise-feedback modulators. Alternatively, noise-feedforward configurations are always stable and have simpler analysis. The modulator can also be classified by

10120-463: The ruling circle, however, and despite the conservative approach of the leadership, Okuma continued as a lone advocate of British-style government, a government with political parties and a cabinet organized by the majority party, answerable to the national assembly. He called for elections to be held by 1882 and for a national assembly to be convened by 1883; in doing so, he precipitated a political crisis that ended with an 1881 imperial rescript declaring

10235-508: The same design. Another trend in the Meiji era was for women's under-kimono made by combining pieces of different fabric, sometimes of radically different colors and designs. For men, the trend was for highly decorative under-kimono that would be covered by outer kimono that were plain or very simply designed. Even the clothing of infants and young children used bold colors, intricate designs, and materials common to adult fashions. Japanese exports led to kimono becoming an object of fascination in

10350-451: The same year, the hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years, when in January the Conscription Law of 1873 was passed. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted

10465-542: The sampling rate. It is particularly appropriate when the modulator is implemented as a switched capacitor circuit, which work by transferring charge between capacitors in clocked time steps. Integration in discrete-time can be an accumulator which repeatedly sums its input x [ n ] {\displaystyle x[n]} with the previous result of its summation y [ n ] = x [ n ] + y [ n − 1 ] . {\displaystyle y[n]=x[n]+y[n-1].} This

10580-489: The segments of the ministry with focus on the education portions of organization. The Education Policy Bureau as a department upholds the concept of lifelong learning, introduced in the Basic Act on Education. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology describes this department's duties as designing educational policy based on comprehensive and objective evidence. The Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau

10695-401: The selection and admission of both domestic and abroad students. These are the segments of the ministry with focus on the sports and culture portions of organization. The Japan Sports Agency is tasked with the promotion of physical education and health, as well as maintaining the country's ability to compete in international athletics. The Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs tries to create

10810-406: The siege on Kumamoto Castle after fifty-four days. Saigō's troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. Enodake . Saigō's army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following

10925-474: The signal's spectrum by amplifying high-frequency noise, attenuating low-frequencies, and dropping the DC component. This makes its dynamic range and SNR inversely proportional to signal frequency. Delta modulation suffers from slope overload if signals move too fast. And it is susceptible to transmission disturbances that result in cumulative error . Delta-sigma modulation rearranges the integrator and quantizer of

11040-442: The speed of Japan's modernization: the employment of more than 3,000 foreign experts (called o-yatoi gaikokujin or 'hired foreigners') in a variety of specialist fields such as teaching foreign languages, science, engineering, the army and navy, among others; and the dispatch of many Japanese students overseas to Europe and America, based on the fifth and last article of the Charter Oath of 1868: 'Knowledge shall be sought throughout

11155-470: The subsequent negative feedback of its quantized result effectively subtracts the low frequency components of the quantization noise while leaving the higher frequency components of the noise. In the specific case of a single-bit synchronous ΔΣ ADC, an analog voltage signal is effectively converted into a pulse frequency, or pulse density, which can be understood as pulse-density modulation (PDM). A sequence of positive and negative pulses, representing bits at

11270-556: The system affect the input signal only, the noise is temporarily imagined to be 0: [ in ( s ) − Δ Σ M in ( s ) ] ⋅ 1 s + 0 = Δ Σ M in ( s ) , {\displaystyle [{\text{in}}({\text{s}})-\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{in}}({\text{s}})]\cdot {\frac {1}{\text{s}}}+0=\Delta \Sigma {\text{M}}_{\text{in}}({\text{s}})\,,} which can be rearranged to yield

11385-410: The system and transmission is added to the analog signal, reducing its quality. Digitizing it enables noise-free transmission, storage, and processing. There are many methods of digitization. In Nyquist-rate ADCs, an analog signal is sampled at a relatively low sampling frequency just above its Nyquist rate (twice the signal's highest frequency) and quantized by a multi-level quantizer to produce

11500-403: The system delayed by one clock cycle. The noise term's multiplication by ( 1 − z -1 ) {\displaystyle (1-{\text{z}}^{\text{-1}})} represents a first difference backward filter (which has a single pole at the origin and a single zero at z = 1 {\displaystyle {\text{z}}{=}1} ) and thus high-pass filters

11615-773: The term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. Avoidance methods included maiming, self-mutilation, and local uprisings. In conjunction with the new conscription law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military. Indeed, the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French. The enlisted corps ranks were: private, noncommissioned officers, and officers. The private classes were: jōtō-hei or upper soldier, ittō-sotsu or first-class soldier, and nitō-sotsu or second-class soldier. The noncommissioned officer class ranks were: gochō or corporal, gunsō or sergeant, sōchō or sergeant major, and tokumu-sōchō or special sergeant major. Despite

11730-430: The unbridled power of the oligarchy and calling for the immediate establishment of representative government. Between 1871 and 1873, a series of land and tax laws were enacted as the basis for modern fiscal policy. Private ownership was legalized, deeds were issued, and lands were assessed at fair market value with taxes paid in cash rather than in kind as in pre-Meiji days and at slightly lower rates. Dissatisfied with

11845-443: The wealthy elite, could be owned by anyone. Faster and cheaper manufacture allowed more people to afford silk kimono, and enabled designers to create new patterns. The Emperor issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress. Fukuzawa Yukichi 's descriptions of Western clothing and customs were influential. Western dress became popular in the public sphere: many men adopted Western dress in

11960-421: The workplace, although kimono were still the norm for men at home and for women. In the 1890s the kimono reasserted itself, with people wearing bolder and brighter styles. A new type called the hōmongi bridged the gap between formal dress and everyday dress. The technology of the time allowed for subtle color gradients rather than abrupt changes of color. Another trend was for outer and inner garments of

12075-706: The world so as to strengthen the foundations of Imperial rule.' The process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi . Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government led Japan through the process of industrialization, borrowing technology and economic policy from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic , importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan's relative poverty in raw materials. Other economic reforms passed by

12190-409: Was 1,000 years earlier. Since Shinto and Buddhism had molded into a syncretic belief in the prior thousand years and Buddhism had been closely connected with the shogunate, this involved the separation of Shinto and Buddhism ( shinbutsu bunri ) and the associated destruction of various Buddhist temples and related violence ( haibutsu kishaku ). Furthermore, a new State Shinto had to be constructed for

12305-511: Was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan , when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization by Western powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized nation state and emergent great power , influenced by Western scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As

12420-471: Was another significant fiscal reform by the Meiji government, establishing the right of private land ownership for the first time in Japan's history. Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. Those who had been informally involved in foreign trade before the Meiji Restoration also flourished. Old bakufu -serving firms that clung to their traditional ways failed in

12535-450: Was based in home workshops in rural areas. Due to the importing of new textile manufacturing technology from Europe, between 1886 and 1897, Japan's total value of yarn output rose from 12 million to 176 million yen. In 1886, 62% of yarn in Japan was imported; by 1902, most yarn was produced locally. By 1913, Japan was producing 672 million pounds of yarn per year, becoming the world's fourth-largest exporter of cotton yarn. The first railway

12650-524: Was characteristic of Meiji society, especially at the top levels, and represented Japan's search for a place within a new world power system in which European colonial empires dominated. The production of kimono started to use Western technologies such as synthetic dye , and decoration was sometimes influenced by Western motifs. The textile industry modernized rapidly and silk from Tokyo's factories became Japan's principal export. Cheap synthetic dyes meant that bold purples and reds, previously restricted to

12765-534: Was enacted on November 29, 1890. It was a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy . The Emperor of Japan was legally the supreme leader, and the Cabinet were his followers. The Prime Minister would be elected by a Privy Council . In reality, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government. Class distinctions were mostly eliminated during modernization to create

12880-469: Was made by D. J. Goodman at Bell Labs in 1969, to reduce the ΔΣ signal from its high sampling rate while increasing its bit depth . Decimation may be done in a separate chip on the receiving end of the delta-sigma bit stream, sometimes by a dedicated module inside of a microcontroller , which is useful for interfacing with PDM MEMS microphones , though many ΔΣ ADC integrated circuits include decimation. Some microcontrollers even incorporate both

12995-524: Was opened between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. The rail system was rapidly developed throughout Japan well into the twentieth century. The introduction of railway transportation led to more efficient production due to the decrease in transport costs, allowing manufacturing firms to move into more populated interior regions of Japan in search for labor input. The railway also enabled newfound access to raw materials that had previously been too difficult or too costly to transport. There were at least two reasons for

13110-419: Was released from Buddhist administration and its properties restored. Although Buddhism suffered from state sponsorship of Shinto, it had its own resurgence. Christianity also was legalized, and Confucianism remained an important ethical doctrine. Increasingly, however, Japanese thinkers identified with Western ideology and methods. A major proponent of representative government was Itagaki Taisuke (1837–1919),

13225-630: Was responsible to the Emperor and independent of the legislature. The Diet could approve government legislation and initiate laws, make representations to the government, and submit petitions to the Emperor. The Meiji Constitution lasted as the fundamental law until 1947. In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extra-constitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively,

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