151-668: See text The Lumbricidae are a family of earthworms . About 33 lumbricid species have become naturalized around the world, but the bulk of the species are in the Holarctic region: from Canada (e.g. Bimastos lawrenceae on Vancouver Island ) and the United States (e.g. Eisenoides carolinensis , Eisenoides lonnbergi and most Bimastos spp.) and throughout Eurasia to Japan (e.g. Eisenia japonica , E. koreana and Helodrilus hachiojii ). An enigmatic species in Tasmania
302-420: A megadrile earthworm into one of its taxonomic families under suborders Lumbricina and Moniligastrida is based on such features as the makeup of the clitellum, the location and disposition of the sex features (pores, prostatic glands, etc.), number of gizzards, and body shape. Currently, over 6,000 species of terrestrial earthworms are named, as provided in a species name database, but the number of synonyms
453-557: A minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions. Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for
604-468: A protectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy. Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992, following the 1987 share market crash , but eventually fell to 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major effect on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters,
755-438: A ventral nerve cord . Earthworms' brains consist of a pair of pear-shaped cerebral ganglia. These are located in the dorsal side of the alimentary canal in the third segment, in a groove between the buccal cavity and pharynx . A pair of circum-pharyngeal connectives from the brain encircle the pharynx and then connect with a pair of sub-pharyngeal ganglia located below the pharynx in the fourth segment. This arrangement means
906-463: A "pressure" response as well as (often) a response to the dehydrating quality of the salt on human skin (toxic to earthworms), stimulates the subepidermal nerve plexus which connects to the intermuscular plexus and causes the longitudinal muscles to contract. This causes the writhing movements observed when a human picks up an earthworm. This behaviour is a reflex and does not require the CNS; it occurs even if
1057-436: A bisected specimen in certain species. Gates's reports included: An unidentified Tasmanian earthworm shown growing a replacement head has been reported. Within the world of taxonomy, the stable 'Classical System' of Michaelsen (1900) and Stephenson (1930) was gradually eroded by the controversy over how to classify earthworms, such that Fender and McKey-Fender (1990) went so far as to say, "The family-level classification of
1208-577: A copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg . Aotearoa (pronounced [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa] in Māori and / ˌ aʊ t ɛəˈr oʊ . ə / in English; often translated as 'land of the long white cloud') is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had
1359-462: A crucial role in attracting a partner and in facilitating outcrossing. Outcrossing would provide the benefit of masking the expression of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny (see Complementation ). Copulation and reproduction are separate processes in earthworms. The mating pair overlap front ends ventrally and each exchanges sperm with the other. The clitellum becomes very reddish to pinkish in colour. Sometime after copulation, long after
1510-458: A dominion in 1907; it gained full statutory independence in 1947, retaining the monarch as head of state . Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 5.25 million is of European descent ; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pasifika . Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening of culture arising from increased immigration to
1661-438: A double transport system made of coelomic fluid that moves within the fluid-filled coelom and a simple, closed circulatory system , and respire (breathe) via cutaneous respiration . As soft-bodied invertebrates, they lack a true skeleton , but their structure is maintained by fluid-filled coelom chambers that function as a hydrostatic skeleton . Earthworms have a central nervous system consisting of two ganglia above
SECTION 10
#17332028089631812-500: A high level of innovation . Poverty in New Zealand is characterised by growing income inequality; wealth in New Zealand is highly concentrated , with the top 1% of the population owning 16% of the country's wealth, and the richest 5% owning 38%, leaving a stark contrast where half the population, including state beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $ 24,000. Moreover, child poverty in New Zealand has been identified by
1963-489: A higher species richness than native North American worms, though the species richness of both the native and Lumbricidae decreases with increasing latitudes. Similar to North America, worms from the family were introduced to New Zealand and Australia by European settlers. Harvestmen , especially from the genera Leiobunum and Hadrobunus , are known to consume Lumbricidae earthworms. This happens mostly in temperate regions. Another species known to prey on Lumbricidae
2114-419: A mouth, buccal cavity (generally running through the first one or two segments of the earthworm), pharynx (running generally about four segments in length), esophagus, crop, gizzard (usually), and intestine. Food enters at the mouth. The pharynx acts as a suction pump; its muscular walls draw in food. In the pharynx, the pharyngeal glands secrete mucus . Food moves into the esophagus , where calcium (from
2265-605: A name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans; Aotearoa originally referred to just the North Island . Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui ( ' the fish of Māui ' ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( ' the waters of greenstone ' ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( ' the canoe of Aoraki ' ) for the South Island . Early European maps labelled
2416-548: A national park in Sweden , the furthest north the species have been found. The discovery of D. attemsi implies the range of the species is increasing north. It is not only in Sweden that species of Lumbricidae are expanding their range. Many of the species found in Finland are exhibiting similar increases in range and Lumbricidae worms are also expanding into Northeastern Europe, starting from
2567-431: A pair of commissurals running along the posterior surface of the septum. The pumping action on the dorsal vessel moves the blood forward, while the other four longitudinal vessels carry the blood rearward. In segments seven through eleven, a pair of aortic arches ring the coelom and acts as hearts, pumping the blood to the ventral vessel that acts as the aorta. The blood consists of ameboid cells and haemoglobin dissolved in
2718-532: A pair of pallial blood vessels that connect the dorsal to the subneural blood vessels. Many earthworms can eject coelomic fluid through pores in the back in response to stress; the Australian Didymogaster sylvaticus (known as the "blue squirter earthworm") can squirt fluid as high as 30 cm (12 in). The CNS consists of a bilobed brain (cerebral ganglia , or supra-pharyngeal ganglion), sub-pharyngeal ganglia, circum-pharyngeal connectives and
2869-766: A party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat. Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . More parties have been represented in Parliament since the introduction of MMP. New Zealand's judiciary , headed by the chief justice , includes the Supreme Court , Court of Appeal , the High Court , and subordinate courts. Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence . This theoretically allows
3020-497: A shared Trans-Tasman identity between the two countries stemming from centuries of British colonisation. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament , while executive political power is exercised by the Government , led by the prime minister , currently Christopher Luxon . Charles III is the country's king and is represented by the governor-general , Cindy Kiro . In addition, New Zealand
3171-486: A similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period, overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007. In 2015, renewable energy generated 40.1% of New Zealand's gross energy supply. The majority of the country's electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power , with major schemes on the Waikato , Waitaki and Clutha / Mata-Au rivers, as well as at Manapouri . Geothermal power
SECTION 20
#17332028089633322-614: A trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand. High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community and other compounding factors, such as
3473-484: A yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours. The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season. Snowfall
3624-551: Is Eophila eti . Currently, 670 valid species and subspecies in about 42 genera are recognized. This family includes the majority of earthworm species well known in Europe and Asia. The family consists of the following genera: The worms in the family Lumbricidae originate from Europe, but over time members of the family have since been introduced and spread around the globe. Members of Lumbricidae are native to Europe and are most diverse in southern Europe. There are 30 species from
3775-609: Is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , although its constitution is not codified . Charles III is the King of New Zealand and thus the head of state . The king is represented by the governor-general , whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister . The governor-general can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors, and other key public officials, and in rare situations,
3926-649: Is a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements . Today, New Zealand enjoys particularly close relations with the United States and is one of its major non-NATO allies , as well as with Australia , with a " Trans-Tasman " identity between citizens of
4077-598: Is also a significant generator of electricity, with several large stations located across the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island. The four main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy , Genesis Energy , Mercury Energy and Meridian Energy . State-owned Transpower operates the high-voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands, as well as the Inter-Island HVDC link connecting
4228-576: Is also a significant source of revenue. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , UKUSA , Five Eyes , OECD , ASEAN Plus Six , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum . It enjoys particularly close relations with the United States and is one of its major non-NATO allies ; the United Kingdom; Samoa , Fiji , and Tonga ; and with Australia , with
4379-437: Is also used to feel and chemically sense the worm's surroundings. Some species of earthworm can even use the prehensile prostomium to grab and drag items such as grasses and leaves into their burrow. An adult earthworm develops a belt-shaped glandular swelling, called the clitellum , which covers several segments toward the front part of the animal. This is part of the reproductive system and produces egg capsules. The posterior
4530-564: Is classified as a non-self-governing territory , but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll ). The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica , where it operates the Scott Base research facility. New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and
4681-869: Is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country. New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species. The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal. About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1,944 species across 65 genera . The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species,
Lumbricidae - Misplaced Pages Continue
4832-459: Is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand. New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries, and enjoys strong diplomatic relations with Samoa , Fiji , and Tonga , and among smaller nations. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries, and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. The increase of this since the 1960s led to
4983-440: Is heavily dependent on international trade, particularly in agricultural products. Exports account for 24% of its output, making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns . Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%). New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018 , are China ( NZ$ 27.8b), Australia ($ 26.2b),
5134-494: Is made up of two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands . The two main islands (the North Island , or Te Ika-a-Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu ) are separated by Cook Strait , 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point. Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island (across the Foveaux Strait ), Chatham Island , Great Barrier Island (in
5285-428: Is most commonly cylindrical like the rest of the body, but depending on the species, it may also be quadrangular, octagonal, trapezoidal, or flattened. The last segment is called the periproct ; the earthworm's anus, a short vertical slit, is found on this segment. The exterior of an individual segment is a thin cuticle over the skin, commonly pigmented red to brown, which has specialized cells that secrete mucus over
5436-441: Is necessary to stimulate reproduction, even though no male genetic material passes to the offspring. Earthworm mating occurs on the surface, most often at night. Earthworms are hermaphrodites ; that is, they have both male and female sexual organs. The sexual organs are located in segments 9 to 15. Earthworms have one or two pairs of testes contained within sacs. The two or four pairs of seminal vesicles produce, store and release
5587-436: Is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40% of these are endemic. The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates. The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock . Before
5738-555: Is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory ); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency , which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica . The first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman , named
5889-477: Is the Bannan caecilian . Lumbricidae are an important part of its diet. Earthworm An earthworm is a soil -dwelling terrestrial invertebrate that belongs to the phylum Annelida . The term is the common name for the largest members of the class (or subclass , depending on the author) Oligochaeta . In classical systems, they were in the order of Opisthopora since the male pores opened posterior to
6040-538: Is the sixth-largest island country by area and lies east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and south of the islands of New Caledonia , Fiji , and Tonga . The country's varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps , owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington , and its most populous city is Auckland . The islands of New Zealand were
6191-509: Is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management ", while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters. Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially
Lumbricidae - Misplaced Pages Continue
6342-479: Is unknown. The families, with their known distributions or origins: From a total of around 7,000 species, only about 150 species are widely distributed around the world. These are the peregrine or cosmopolitan earthworms. Of the 182 taxa of earthworms found in the United States and Canada, 60 (33%) are introduced species. Earthworms are classified into three main ecophysiological categories: (1) leaf litter - or compost-dwelling worms that are nonburrowing, live at
6493-629: The 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression . Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank . In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period. Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia ), rapidly transforming New Zealand from
6644-827: The ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia. In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War , the Korean War , the Malayan Emergency , the Gulf War , and the Afghanistan War . It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus , Somalia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Sinai , Angola , Cambodia ,
6795-671: The European Union ($ 22.9b), the United States ($ 17.6b), and Japan ($ 8.4b). On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement , the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country. In July 2023, New Zealand and the European Union entered into the EU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement , which eliminated tariffs on several goods traded between
6946-692: The Gondwanan supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trough east of
7097-605: The Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the first Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy. New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War, and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work. A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of
7248-614: The Hauraki Gulf ), D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds ) and Waiheke Island (about 22 km (14 mi) from central Auckland). New Zealand is long and narrow—over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi) —with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline,
7399-568: The Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville , East Timor , and the Solomon Islands . New Zealand has an advanced market economy , ranked 13th in the 2021 Human Development Index , and fourth in the 2022 Index of Economic Freedom . It is a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$ 36,254. The currency is the New Zealand dollar , informally known as
7550-566: The Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950. The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed,
7701-666: The Statute of Westminster , confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for the country without its consent. The British government's residual legislative powers were later removed by the Constitution Act 1986 , and final rights of appeal to British courts were abolished in 2003. Early in the 20th century , New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through
SECTION 50
#17332028089637852-562: The United Kingdom and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which paved the way for Britain's declaration of sovereignty later that year and the establishment of the Crown Colony of New Zealand in 1841. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori tribes resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land. New Zealand became
8003-594: The United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori. The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840. In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington , Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign. With
8154-600: The United States Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population. In terms of structural discrimination , the New Zealand Human Rights Commission has asserted that there is strong, consistent evidence that it is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue. One example of structural inequality in New Zealand can be seen in
8305-616: The West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 618 millimetres (24.3 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount. Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive
8456-473: The caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes . New Zealand is prone to earthquakes . The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates . New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from
8607-490: The megascolecid earthworms is in chaos." Over the years, many scientists have developed their own classification systems for earthworms, which led to confusion, and these systems have been and still continue to be revised and updated. The classification system used here which was developed by Blakemore (2000), is a modern reversion to the Classical System that is historically proven and widely accepted. Categorization of
8758-528: The microdriles ("small worms") in the semiaquatic families Tubificidae , Lumbricidae and Enchytraeidae . The megadriles are characterized by a distinct clitellum (more extensive than that of microdriles) and a vascular system with true capillaries . Earthworms are commonly found in moist, compost -rich soil, eating a wide variety of organic matters , which include detritus , living protozoa , rotifers , nematodes , bacteria , fungi and other microorganisms . An earthworm's digestive system runs
8909-619: The mouth , one on either side, connected to an axial nerve running along its length to motor neurons and sensory cells in each segment. Large numbers of chemoreceptors concentrate near its mouth. Circumferential and longitudinal muscles edging each segment let the worm move. Similar sets of muscles line the gut tube , and their actions propel digested food toward the worm's anus . Earthworms are hermaphrodites : each worm carries male and female reproductive organs and genital pores . When mating, two individual earthworms will exchange sperm and fertilize each other's ova . Depending on
9060-477: The reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law). The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives . It also included an upper house,
9211-544: The seven-continent model. New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime ( Köppen : Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north. Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora , Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly , Otago . Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on
SECTION 60
#17332028089639362-552: The "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar ), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands . Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focusing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax , gold, kauri gum , and native timber. The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain,
9513-938: The 2024 Global Peace Index , New Zealand is the 4th most peaceful country in the world. New Zealand's military services—the New Zealand Defence Force —comprise the New Zealand Army , the Royal New Zealand Air Force , and the Royal New Zealand Navy . New Zealand's national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely. However, its military has had a global presence . The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli , Crete , El Alamein , and Cassino . The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity and strengthened
9664-597: The Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council. The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15 Commonwealth realms , is the entire area over which the king or queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands , and Niue . The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau
9815-424: The Government as a major societal issue; the country has 12.0% of children living in low-income households that had less than 50% of the median equivalised disposable household income as of June 2022 . Poverty has a disproportionately high effect in ethnic-minority households, with a quarter (23.3%) of Māori children and almost a third (28.6%) of Pacific Islander children living in poverty as of 2020 . New Zealand
9966-410: The MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate , and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote), and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in Parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that
10117-599: The Māori of later years. In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman 's crew, four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot . Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling , sealing , and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water. The introduction of
10268-527: The Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor. The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832. His duties, given to him by Governor Bourke in Sydney, were to protect settlers and traders "of good standing", prevent "outrages" against Māori, and apprehend escaped convicts. In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry ,
10419-426: The North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north. New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a wider region known as Australasia . It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia . Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in
10570-489: The North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars . Following these armed conflicts, large areas of Māori land were confiscated by the government to meet settler demands. The colony gained a representative government in 1852 , and the first Parliament met in 1854. In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy, which
10721-565: The Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens. During the period of the New Zealand colony, Britain was responsible for external trade and foreign relations. The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties , and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand". In 1951,
10872-466: The Treaty of Waitangi. In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s. New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and
11023-642: The United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty. The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War , the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior , disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy . Despite
11174-519: The United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend. Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which
11325-447: The ability to regenerate lost segments, but this ability varies between species and depends on the extent of the damage. Stephenson (1930) devoted a chapter of his monograph to this topic, while G. E. Gates spent 20 years studying regeneration in a variety of species. But "because little interest was shown", Gates (1972) published only a few of his findings. These nevertheless show it is theoretically possible to grow two whole worms from
11476-438: The arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine , wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees. Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement. Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of
11627-553: The average lifespan under field conditions is four to eight years, while most garden varieties live only one to two years. Several common earthworm species are mostly parthenogenetic , meaning that growth and development of embryos happens without fertilization . Among lumbricid earthworms, parthenogenesis arose from sexual relatives many times. Parthenogenesis in some Aporrectodea trapezoides lineages arose 6.4 to 1.1 million years ago from sexual ancestors. A few species exhibit pseudogamous parthogenesis, meaning that mating
11778-465: The banks of the 4,350 km (2,703 mi) Mekong River in Southeast Asia. From front to back, the basic shape of the earthworm is a cylindrical tube-in-a-tube, divided into a series of segments (called metameres ) that compartmentalize the body. Furrows are generally externally visible on the body demarking the segments; dorsal pores and nephridiopores exude a fluid that moistens and protects
11929-564: The blood and ingested from previous meals) is pumped in to maintain proper blood calcium levels in the blood and food pH . From there the food passes into the crop and gizzard. In the gizzard , strong muscular contractions grind the food with the help of mineral particles ingested along with the food. Once through the gizzard, food continues through the intestine for digestion. The intestine secretes pepsin to digest proteins, amylase to digest polysaccharides, cellulase to digest cellulose, and lipase to digest fats. Earthworms use, in addition to
12080-411: The bodies of their mates. Generally, within a species, the number of segments found is consistent across specimens, and individuals are born with the number of segments they will have throughout their lives. The first body segment (segment number 1) features both the earthworm's mouth and, overhanging the mouth, a fleshy lobe called the prostomium , which seals the entrance when the worm is at rest, but
12231-758: The body ( peristalsis ). The shortened part is anchored to the surrounding soil by tiny clawlike bristles ( setae ) set along its segmented length. In all the body segments except the first, last and clitellum, there is a ring of S-shaped setae embedded in the epidermal pit of each segment (perichaetine). The whole burrowing process is aided by the secretion of lubricating mucus. As a result of their movement through their lubricated tunnels, worms can make gurgling noises underground when disturbed. Earthworms move through soil by expanding crevices with force; when forces are measured according to body weight, hatchlings can push 500 times their own body weight whereas large adults can push only 10 times their own body weight. Earthworms have
12382-435: The body and are therefore considered one giant axon. The sympathetic nervous system consists of nerve plexuses in the epidermis and alimentary canal. (A plexus is a web of connected nerve cells.) The nerves that run along the body wall pass between the outer circular and inner longitudinal muscle layers of the wall. They give off branches that form the intermuscular plexus and the subepidermal plexus. These nerves connect with
12533-414: The body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. Earthworms have a dual circulatory system in which both the coelomic fluid and a closed circulatory system carry the food, waste, and respiratory gases. The closed circulatory system has five main blood vessels: the dorsal (top) vessel, which runs above the digestive tract; the ventral (bottom) vessel, which runs below
12684-401: The brain, sub-pharyngeal ganglia and the circum-pharyngeal connectives form a nerve ring around the pharynx. The ventral nerve cord (formed by nerve cells and nerve fibers) begins at the sub-pharyngeal ganglia and extends below the alimentary canal to the most posterior body segment. The ventral nerve cord has a swelling, or ganglion, in each segment, i.e. a segmental ganglion, which occurs from
12835-444: The coelom fluid from a forward segment is drawn in by the beating of cilia of the nephrostome . From there it is carried through the septum (wall) via a tube which forms a series of loops entwined by blood capillaries that also transfer waste into the tubule of the nephrostome. The excretory wastes are then finally discharged through a pore on the worm's side. Earthworms have no special respiratory organs. Gases are exchanged through
12986-432: The coelomic fluid to pass between segments. A pair of structures called nephrostomes are located at the back of each septum; a nephric tubule leads from each nephrostome through the septum and into the following segment. This tubule then leads to the main body fluid filtering organ, the nephridium or metanephridium, which removes metabolic waste from the coelomic fluid and expels it through pores called nephridiopores on
13137-474: The consequences of these decisions. The 42nd and current prime minister, since 27 November 2023, is Christopher Luxon . A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system. Since the 1996 election , a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used. Under
13288-419: The country . The official languages are English, Māori , and New Zealand Sign Language , with the local dialect of English being dominant. A developed country , it was the first to introduce a minimum wage , and the first to give women the right to vote . It ranks very highly in international measures of quality of life , human rights , and it has one of the lowest levels of perceived corruption in
13439-461: The country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area. The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps . There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,724 metres (12,218 ft). Fiordland 's steep mountains and deep fiords record
13590-430: The cricopharyngeal connective. On the surface, crawling speed varies both within and among individuals. Earthworms crawl faster primarily by taking longer "strides" and a greater frequency of strides. Larger Lumbricus terrestris worms crawl at a greater absolute speed than smaller worms. They achieve this by taking slightly longer strides but with slightly lower stride frequencies. Touching an earthworm, which causes
13741-497: The criminal justice system. According to the Ministry of Justice , Māori are overrepresented, comprising 45% of New Zealanders convicted of crimes and 53% of those imprisoned, while only being 16.5% of the population. The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces , which had a degree of autonomy. Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government
13892-509: The cuticle to keep the body moist and ease movement through the soil. Under the skin is a layer of nerve tissue, and two layers of muscles—a thin outer layer of circular muscle, and a much thicker inner layer of longitudinal muscle. Interior to the muscle layer is a fluid-filled chamber called a coelom that by its pressurization provides structure to the worm's boneless body. The segments are separated from each other by septa (the plural of "septum") which are perforated transverse walls, allowing
14043-428: The digestive proteins, a class of surface active compounds called drilodefensins , which help digest plant material. Instead of being coiled like a mammalian intestine, in the earthworm's intestine a large mid-dorsal, tongue-like fold is present, called a typhlosole , with many folds running along its length, increasing its surface area to increase nutrient absorption. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like
14194-438: The digestive tract; the subneural vessel, which runs below the ventral nerve cord; and two lateroneural vessels on either side of the nerve cord. The dorsal vessel is mainly a collecting structure in the intestinal region. It receives a pair commissural and dorsal intestines in each segment. The ventral vessel branches off to a pair of ventro-tegumentaries and ventro-intestinals in each segment. The subneural vessel also gives out
14345-476: The earthworm to very quickly retreat (perhaps contracting into its burrow to escape a bird). The presence of a nervous system is essential for an animal to be able to experience nociception or pain . However, other physiological capacities are also required such as opioid sensitivity and central modulation of responses by analgesics. Enkephalin and α-endorphin -like substances have been found in earthworms. Injections of naloxone (an opioid antagonist) inhibit
14496-430: The epithelium of the buccal chamber. These receptors are gustatory and olfactory (related to taste and smell). They also respond to chemical stimuli. (Chemoreceptor) The gut of the earthworm is a straight tube that extends from the worm's mouth to its anus . It is differentiated into an alimentary canal and associated glands which are embedded in the wall of the alimentary canal itself. The alimentary canal consists of
14647-403: The escape responses of earthworms. This indicates that opioid substances play a role in sensory modulation, similar to that found in many vertebrates. Although some worms have eyes , earthworms do not. However, they do have specialized photosensitive cells called "light cells of Hess". These photoreceptor cells have a central intracellular cavity ( phaosome ) filled with microvilli . As well as
14798-405: The extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island. The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism . The highly active Taupō Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau , punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupō , nestled in
14949-673: The family in Ireland and Britain . Notably, a single mature individual of the species Prosellodrilus amplisetosus was found in a survey of soil biodiversity in Ireland. P. amplisetosis had never been recorded in Ireland before and is commonly found in France or Spain . It is thought to have been introduced by humans through agricultural supplies. Another interesting case is of the species Dendrobaena attemsi in Scandinavia . They were first found in
15100-422: The fastest, from the rear to the front of the animal. If the rear of the worm is touched, a signal is rapidly sent forwards causing the longitudinal muscles in each segment to contract. This causes the worm to shorten very quickly as an attempt to escape from a predator or other potential threat. The two medial giant axons connect with each other and send signals from the front to the rear. Stimulation of these causes
15251-458: The female pores, although the internal male segments are anterior to the female. Theoretical cladistic studies have placed them in the suborder Lumbricina of the order Haplotaxida , but this may change. Other slang names for earthworms include "dew-worm", "rainworm", "nightcrawler", and "angleworm" (from its use as angling hookbaits ). Larger terrestrial earthworms are also called megadriles (which translates to "big worms") as opposed to
15402-482: The fifth to the last segment of the body. There are also three giant axons , one medial giant axon (MGA) and two lateral giant axons (LGAs) on the mid-dorsal side of the ventral nerve cord. The MGA is 0.07 mm in diameter and transmits in an anterior-posterior direction at a rate of 32.2 m/s. The LGAs are slightly narrower at 0.05 mm in diameter and transmit in a posterior-anterior direction at 12.6 m/s. The two LGAs are connected at regular intervals along
15553-401: The first three and the last ones. The three types of nephridia are: integumentary, septal, and pharyngeal. The integumentary nephridia lie attached to the inner side of the body wall in all segments except the first two. The septal nephridia are attached to both sides of the septa behind the 15th segment. The pharyngeal nephridia are attached to the fourth, fifth and sixth segments. The waste in
15704-481: The formation of the Pasifika New Zealander pan-ethnic group, the fourth-largest ethnic grouping in the country. Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration
15855-593: The islands Staten Land , believing they were part of the Staten Landt that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America. Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery Nova Zeelandia from Latin , after the Dutch province of Zeeland . This name was later anglicised to New Zealand . This
16006-447: The islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island), and South ( Stewart Island / Rakiura ). In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set
16157-573: The islands are uninhabited except for about six people at Raoul Island station. These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude. After the 1982 UNCLOS , the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand's exclusive economic zone . In 1891, the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party. The Liberal Government , led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office, passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893, New Zealand
16308-436: The judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states. As of 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions, and first in government transparency and lack of corruption . LGBT rights in the nation are also recognised as among
16459-511: The land in 1997. The forests were dominated by birds , and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi , kākāpō , weka and takahē evolving flightlessness . The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats , ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle . Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ( tuatara , skinks and geckos ), frogs , such as
16610-578: The last large habitable land to be settled by humans. Between about 1280 and 1350, Polynesians began to settle in the islands and subsequently developed a distinctive Māori culture . In 1642, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight and record New Zealand. In 1769 the British explorer Captain James Cook became the first European to set foot on and map New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of
16761-614: The latter being common. New Zealand is a member of the Five Eyes intelligence sharing agreement, known formally as the UKUSA Agreement . The five members of this agreement compromise the core Anglosphere : Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Since 2012, New Zealand has had a partnership arrangement with NATO under the Partnership Interoperability Initiative. According to
16912-445: The length of its body. They are one of nature's most important detritivores and coprophages , and also serve as food for many low-level consumers within the ecosystems. Earthworms exhibit an externally segmented tube-within-a-tube body plan with corresponding internal segmentations, and usually have setae on all segments. They have a cosmopolitan distribution wherever soil, water and temperature conditions allow. They have
17063-574: The longest recession in over thirty years, and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009. The lowest unemployment rate recorded using the current methodology was in December 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic , at 3.2%. Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. During the September 2021 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 3.2%, while
17214-714: The majority of earthworms found in China , despite not being native to the area. At higher elevations in India , some species of Lumbicidae can be found. When European settlers came to North America , so did European earthworms like the Lumbricidae. Before this, the area in North America where glaciers had been were mostly worm-free. Lumbricidae worms are known to be expanding into the Great Lakes region . The introduced worms have an impact on
17365-449: The microvilli, there are several sensory cilia in the phaosome which are structurally independent of the microvilli. The photoreceptors are distributed in most parts of the epidermis, but are more concentrated on the back and sides of the worm. A relatively small number occur on the ventral surface of the first segment. They are most numerous in the prostomium, and reduce in density in the first three segments; they are very few in number past
17516-418: The mineral soil. Because a high level of organic matter mixing is associated with soil fertility , an abundance of earthworms is generally considered beneficial by farmers and gardeners. As long ago as 1881 Charles Darwin wrote: "It may be doubted whether there are many other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly organized creatures." Also, while, as
17667-414: The moist skin and capillaries, where the oxygen is picked up by the haemoglobin dissolved in the blood plasma and carbon dioxide is released. Water, as well as salts, can also be moved through the skin by active transport. At birth, earthworms emerge small but fully formed, lacking only their sex structures which develop in about 60 to 90 days. They attain full size in about one year. Scientists predict that
17818-480: The most tolerant in Oceania . New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 82% voter turnout during recent general elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%. However, this is untrue for local council elections; a historically low 36% of eligible New Zealanders voted in the 2022 local elections , compared with an already low 42% turnout in 2019 . A 2017 human rights report by
17969-583: The name suggests, the main habitat of earthworms is in soil, they are not restricted to this habitat. The brandling worm Eisenia fetida lives in decaying plant matter and manure. Arctiostrotus vancouverensis from Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula is generally found in decaying conifer logs. Aporrectodea limicola , Sparganophilus spp., and several others are found in mud in streams. Some species are arboreal, some aquatic and some euryhaline (salt-water tolerant) and littoral (living on
18120-583: The names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu . For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together. Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together ( Aotearoa New Zealand ); however, this has no official recognition. The first people to reach New Zealand were Polynesians in ocean going waka (canoes). Their arrival likely occurred in several waves, approximately between 1280 and 1350 CE. Those Polynesian settlers, isolated in New Zealand, became
18271-400: The native species and environments. Species from the family, such as Lumbricus rubelles , are believed to have displaced the local species in a number of regions. In others, Lumbricidae species outnumber the native species in terms of biomass. Despite this, they are not as productive, in terms of processing nitrogen and phosphorus , as the native species. Lumbricidae worms also tend to have
18422-536: The near Baltic sea. A 2022 molecular phylogenetic study of the highly diverse Franco-Iberian genus Zophoscolex showed most of the Iberian species to form a distinct clade, formally described as Castellodrilus stat. nov. . Other species were moved to the genera Cataladrilus and Compostelandrilus , with the remaining species remaining in Zophoscolex restricted to French representatives. Lumbricidae make up
18573-690: The nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection. Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for
18724-420: The nerve cord is removed. Each segment of the earthworm has its own nerve plexus. The plexus of one segment is not connected directly to that of adjacent segments. The nerve cord is required to connect the nervous systems of the segments. The giant axons carry the fastest signals along the nerve cord. These are emergency signals that initiate reflex escape behaviours. The larger dorsal giant axon conducts signals
18875-475: The number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007, to become New Zealand's largest export earner. In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($ 14.1 billion) of total exports, and the country's largest company, Fonterra , controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade. Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%). New Zealand's wine industry has followed
19026-614: The numbers of worms that go into diapause . The more acidic the soil, the sooner worms go into diapause, and remain in diapause the longest time at a pH of 6.4. Earthworms are preyed upon by many species of birds (e.g. robins, starlings , thrushes , gulls , crows ), snakes, wood turtles, mammals (e.g. bears , boars, foxes , hedgehogs , pigs , moles ) and invertebrates (e.g. ants , flatworms , ground beetles and other beetles , snails , spiders , and slugs ). Earthworms have many internal parasites , including protozoa , platyhelminthes, mites, and nematodes ; they can be found in
19177-433: The plasma. The second circulatory system derives from the cells of the digestive system that line the coelom. As the digestive cells become full, they release non-living cells of fat into the fluid-filled coelom, where they float freely but can pass through the walls separating each segment, moving food to other parts and assist in wound healing. The excretory system contains a pair of nephridia in every segment, except for
19328-411: The potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns. The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of
19479-442: The protected endangered Hamilton's Frog , spiders , insects ( wētā ), and snails. Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils . Three species of bats ( one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old. Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half
19630-793: The rest. As the worm slips out of the ring, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely onion-shaped incubator ( cocoon ) in which the embryonic worms develop. Hence fertilization is external. The cocoon is then deposited in the soil. After three weeks, 2 to 20 offspring hatch with an average of four. Development is direct i.e. without formation of any larva. Exposure of the earthworm Eisenia fetida to ionizing radiation induced DNA strand breaks and oxidized DNA bases . These DNA damages could then be repaired in somatic and spermatogenic cells. Earthworms testis cells are also capable of repairing hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative DNA adducts. Earthworms travel underground by means of waves of muscular contractions which alternately shorten and lengthen
19781-423: The sea-shore, e.g. Pontodrilus litoralis ). Even in the soil species, special habitats, such as soils derived from serpentine , have an earthworm fauna of their own. New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean . It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island ( Te Ika-a-Māui ) and the South Island ( Te Waipounamu )—and over 600 smaller islands . It
19932-583: The signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase. New Zealand was administered as a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony , the Colony of New Zealand , on 3 May 1841. Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in
20083-500: The soil, such as temperature, moisture, pH, salts, aeration , and texture, as well as available food, and the ability of the species to reproduce and disperse. One of the most important environmental factors is pH , but earthworms vary in their preferences. Most favour neutral to slightly acidic soils. Lumbricus terrestris is still present in a pH of 5.4, Dendrobaena octaedra at a pH of 4.3 and some Megascolecidae are present in extremely acidic humic soils. Soil pH may also influence
20234-549: The soil-litter interface and eat decomposing organic matter ( epigeic ) e.g. Eisenia fetida ; (2) topsoil- or subsoil-dwelling worms that feed (on soil), burrow and cast within the soil, creating horizontal burrows in upper 10–30 cm of soil ( endogeic ); and (3) worms that construct permanent deep vertical burrows which they use to visit the surface to obtain plant material for food, such as leaves ( anecic , meaning "reaching up"), e.g. Lumbricus terrestris . Earthworm populations depend on both physical and chemical properties of
20385-404: The species, an adult earthworm can be from 10 mm (0.39 in) long and 1 mm (0.039 in) wide to 3 m (9.8 ft) long and over 25 mm (0.98 in) wide, but the typical Lumbricus terrestris grows to about 360 mm (14 in) long. Probably the longest worm on confirmed records is Amynthas mekongianus that extends up to 3 m (10 ft) in the mud along
20536-838: The sperm via the male pores. Ovaries and oviducts in segment 13 release eggs via female pores on segment 14, while sperm is expelled from segment 15. One or more pairs of spermathecae are present in segments 9 and 10 (depending on the species) which are internal sacs that receive and store sperm from the other worm during copulation. As a result, segment 15 of one worm exudes sperm into segments 9 and 10 with its storage vesicles of its mate. Some species use external spermatophores for sperm transfer. In Hormogaster samnitica and Hormogaster elisae transcriptome DNA libraries were sequenced and two sex pheromones , Attractin and Temptin, were detected in all tissue samples of both species . Sex pheromones are probably important in earthworms because they live in an environment where chemical signaling may play
20687-565: The third segment. These receptors are abundant and distributed all over the epidermis . Each receptor shows a slightly elevated cuticle which covers a group of tall, slender and columnar receptor cells. These cells bear small hairlike processes at their outer ends and their inner ends are connected with nerve fibres. The epidermal receptors are tactile in function. They are also concerned with changes in temperature and respond to chemical stimuli. Earthworms are extremely sensitive to touch and mechanical vibration. These receptors are located only in
20838-467: The total workforce in 2016. In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022. Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century. Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues, but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities, and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers. In contrast, dairy farming increased, with
20989-486: The two regions. This free trade agreement expanded on the pre-existing free trade agreement and saw a reduction in tariffs on meat and dairy in response to feedback from the affected industries. The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction. Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $ 12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of
21140-481: The unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 24 was 9.2%. New Zealand has experienced a series of " brain drains " since the 1970s that still continue today. Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation. In recent decades, however, a " brain gain " has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries. Today New Zealand's economy benefits from
21291-847: The world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises ) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters. Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country. More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species. Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas . New Zealand
21442-409: The world. It retains visible levels of inequality , having structural disparities between its Māori and European populations. New Zealand underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. The service sector dominates the national economy , followed by the industrial sector, and agriculture ; international tourism
21593-406: The worm's sides; usually, two nephridia (sometimes more) are found in most segments. At the centre of a worm is the digestive tract , which runs straight through from mouth to anus without coiling, and is flanked above and below by blood vessels (the dorsal blood vessel and the ventral blood vessel as well as a subneural blood vessel) and the ventral nerve cord , and is surrounded in each segment by
21744-413: The worm's surface, allowing it to breathe. Except for the mouth and anal segments, each segment carries bristlelike hairs called lateral setae used to anchor parts of the body during movement; species may have four pairs of setae on each segment or more than eight sometimes forming a complete circle of setae per segment. Special ventral setae are used to anchor mating earthworms by their penetration into
21895-420: The worms have separated, the clitellum (behind the spermathecae) secretes material which forms a ring around the worm. The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, it injects its own eggs and the other worm's sperm into it. Thus each worm becomes the genetic father of some of their offspring (due to its own sperm transferred to other earthworm) and the genetic mother (offsprings from its own egg cells) of
22046-432: The worms' blood , seminal vesicles , coelom , or intestine , or in their cocoons (e.g. the mite Histiostoma murchiei is a parasite of earthworm cocoons ). The earthworm activity aerates and mixes the soil, and is conducive to mineralization of nutrients and their uptake by vegetation. Certain species of earthworm come to the surface and graze on the higher concentrations of organic matter present there, mixing it with
22197-569: Was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876. The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries. Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government. In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities . The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils. The regional councils' role
22348-472: Was granted in the mid-1860s). Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait . Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. In 1886, New Zealand annexed the volcanic Kermadec Islands , about 1,000 km (620 mi) northeast of Auckland. Since 1937,
22499-595: Was introduced in 2007, and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it. New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , the Pacific Community , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit ). New Zealand has been described as a middle power in the Asia-Pacific region, and an emerging power . The country
22650-567: Was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions in 1894. The Liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894, a world first. In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire , reflecting its self-governing status. In 1947, New Zealand adopted
22801-682: Was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language (spelled Nu Tirani in Te Tiriti o Waitangi). In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled " He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni " was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand . It was prepared by Te W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni , the United Tribes of New Zealand , and
#962037