Lower Level is a 1991 American erotic thriller film directed by Kristine Peterson , and written by Hillary Black, W.K. Border, Michael Leahy, and Joel Soisson .
93-413: The film features a female architect with an unfulfilling love life, who records her fantasies in journals. She has unwittingly attracted a stalker , who has already read her private journals. The stalker tries to both capture the architect and to kill the architect's yuppie boyfriend. Frustrated by Craig, her inattentive yuppie boyfriend, architect Hillary White dreams of being swept off of her feet by
186-507: A white knight , fantasies which she writes about in the journals that she keeps hidden in her office at Figueroa Plaza. While leaving work one night, Hillary and a visiting Craig become stuck in the parking garage due to the machinations of Sam, a security guard who is obsessed with Hillary, to the extent that he murders a businesswoman who had obliviously threatened his plans for her. After covertly causing Craig to fall down an elevator shaft, something which goes unnoticed by Hillary, Sam restarts
279-433: A child has obtained closeness and attachment by their early caregivers, they are able to develop autonomy and identity. If children have not introjected the good and protective qualities of their parents, they will fear separation and break-ups. Several psychological models have been proposed to explain the process of a relationship breakup, many suggesting that relationship dissolution occurs in stages. Mark L. Knapp ,
372-405: A foundational scholar on the subject of interpersonal relationships, created a model called Knapp's relational development model . He describes two separate phases of relationships, coming together and coming apart. The coming together phase is meant to be long-term, beginning in the initiation phase and becoming deeper with time and intimacy. In the coming apart phase, differentiating begins. This
465-508: A high score of sexual abuse as children and narcissistic vulnerability. Men were more likely to become stalkers. Out of the women who participated in their study, 9% were cyberstalkers meanwhile only 4% were overt stalkers. In addition, the male participants revealed the opposite, 16% were overt stalkers while 11% were cyberstalkers. Alcohol and physical abuse both played a role in predicting women's cyberstalking and in men, " preoccupied attachment significantly predicted cyber stalking" while
558-431: A life apart from the partner'. The latter then has to play catch-up: 'to make their own transition out of the relationship, partners must redefine initiator and relationship negatively, legitimating the dissolution'. As a result, for Vaughan 'getting out of a relationship includes a redefinition of self at several levels: in the private thoughts of the individual, between partners, and in the larger social context in which
651-408: A lifetime prevalence of 11% (women: 17%, men: 3%). Further results include: 86% of stalking victims were female, 81% of the stalkers were male. Women were mainly stalked by men (88%) while men were almost equally stalked by men and women (60% male stalkers). 19% of the stalking victims reported that they were still being stalked at the time of study participation ( point prevalence rate: 2%). To 70% of
744-537: A lifetime prevalence of 12% in England and Wales (16% female, 7% males). In 2010/11, 57% of stalking victims were found to be female, and 43% were male. According to a paper by staff from the Fixated Threat Assessment Centre , a unit established to deal with people with fixations on public figures, 86% of a sample group of 100 people assessed by them appeared to them to have a psychotic illness ; 57% of
837-601: A member of the Stalking Case Assessment Team (SCAT), special unit within the San Diego District Attorney's Office, hundreds of cases involving what he called and typed "terrestrial" and " cyberstalking " between 1995 and 2002. This research culminated in one of the most comprehensive books written to date on the subject. Published by CRC Press, Inc. in August 2001, it is considered the "gold standard" as
930-529: A mistaken belief that another person loves them ( erotomania ), or that they need rescuing. Stalking can consist of an accumulation of a series of actions which, by themselves, can be legal, such as calling on the phone, sending gifts, or sending emails. Stalkers may use overt and covert intimidation, threats and violence to frighten their victims. They may engage in vandalism and property damage or make physical attacks that are meant to frighten. Less common are sexual assaults . Intimate-partner stalkers are
1023-461: A more traditional conjunctive dating relationship. Based on work with stalking victims for eight years in Australia, Mullen and Pathé identified different types of stalking victims, characterized by prior relationship with the stalker. These are: Although stalking is a gender-neutral behavior, studies confirm that the majority of victims are female and that the primary perpetrators are male. As for
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#17328517563441116-421: A personal relationship with their victims but rather force them to emit a certain response. While the vengeance stalker's motive is "to get even" with the other person whom he/she perceives has done some wrong to them (e.g., an employee who believes is fired without justification from a job by a superior), the political stalker intends to accomplish a political agenda, also using threats and intimidation to force
1209-427: A plethora of issues that may result in break-ups. An example of this is that those already in a relationship can have multiple partners that are also dating using online platforms that have no knowledge of each other due to the unlimited access they have to meet people from all over the world. Once a partner discovers the infidelity , this could result in a breakup. Online dating may also prohibit choices that could save
1302-399: A reference to stalking crimes, victim protection, safety planning, security and threat assessment. The 2002 National Victim Association Academy defines an additional form of stalking: The vengeance/terrorist stalker . Both the vengeance stalker and terrorist stalker (the latter sometimes called the political stalker) do not, in contrast with some of the aforementioned types of stalkers, seek
1395-636: A relationship when it may be in their best interest mentally and emotionally because of this pressure. Their studies also indicate that most counseling services, or other means of salvaging a relationship, have heteronormative assumptions. This makes it difficult for LGBTQ couples to find help for their relationships that caters to the issues they struggle with personally. Other unique issues arise out of LGBTQ relationship dissolutions when children are involved. According to researchers Goldberg and Allen, LGBTQ separations involving children can become legally confusing. In lesbian relationships, there are two mothers, so
1488-824: A relationship. To further elaborate, many times in relationships, space is necessary to collect thoughts and feelings after an argument, however, the usage of social media allows access to one's partner at all times. This constant accessibility may result in disruption of both space and boundaries necessary for a healthy relationship. While public opinion has become more accepting of different forms of relationships, including those that are not heterosexual, LGBTQ couples often face adversity when it comes to maintaining their relationships due to societal-based homophobia . According to researchers Lahti and Kolehmainen, studies have shown that LGBTQ couples tend to feel pressured by society to maintain long, monogamous, and healthy relationships. They may struggle in silence and refuse to seek help or end
1581-467: A representative survey in Mannheim , a middle-sized German city, and reported a lifetime prevalence of having been stalked of almost 12%. In India, a stalking case is reported every 55 minutes. Most cases are not reported as they are not considered criminal enough. Tjaden and Thoennes reported a lifetime prevalence (being stalked) of 8% in females and 2% in males (depending on how strict the definition) in
1674-451: A result of the relationship's dissolution, and these events often gain the reputation for being some of the worst events in people's lives. These could include psychological distress symptoms, grief reactions, an overall decline in psychological well-being, and potential stalking behaviors. Individuals often work hard to keep their relationships intact because of how significantly distressing and problematic these negative effects can be, even in
1767-628: A result of this stress. Without this push to improve, individuals are often pushed towards complacency and refuse to make the necessary efforts to progress through life. Different ways in which people have exhibited growth following a stressful life event include improvements to the way a person views themselves, the way they connect with other people around them, or their overall approach to life. Research shows that breakups are highly representative of this type of stressful situation, as individuals experience them several times throughout their lives and have been known to self-report instances of growth because of
1860-399: A significant redefinition of their self-concept, as they attempt to understand who they are without their ex-partner. This compounds upon the psychological distress symptoms that they feel from the loss of the relationship and is the most significant negative effect that people undergoing a breakup experience. A natural effect of the loss of a relationship that an individual had hoped to keep
1953-429: A similar amount of time as relationships that were started in person. Others, however, have not been as long-lived. The presence of social media and technology also plays a part in relationships that began and exist in person, as well. There has been much controversy about the stress that online dating places on relationships. The constant and wide range of accessibility provided by technology and internet access can lead to
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#17328517563442046-470: A study that followed 160 20 to 25-year-olds, or emerging adults, and observed their romantic and close friend relationships. There were a significant number of findings, but one finding was that the experience of a break-up did prove positive in the long run for several individuals, especially if they knew the reason(s) the relationship ended. Individuals that are placed under stressful situations are often faced with an opportunity for growth and development as
2139-421: A text is not usually illegal, but is illegal when frequently repeated to an unwilling recipient). In fact, United Kingdom law states the incident only has to happen twice when the harasser should be aware their behavior is unacceptable (e.g., two phone calls to a stranger, two gifts, following the victim then phoning them, etc.). Cultural norms and meaning affect the way stalking is defined. Scholars note that
2232-420: A transition period in which one partner unconsciously knows the relationship is going to end, but holds on to it for an extended period, even for years. Vaughan considered that the process of breakup was asymmetrical for initiator and respondent: the former 'has begun mourning the loss of the relationship and has undertaken something tantamount to a rehearsal, mentally and, to varying degrees, experientially, of
2325-629: A variety of personality disorders (such as antisocial , borderline , or narcissistic ). The nonpsychotic stalkers' pursuit of victims is primarily angry, vindictive, focused, often including projection of blame , obsession , dependency , minimization , denial , and jealousy . Conversely, only 10% of stalkers had an erotomanic delusional disorder. In "A Study of Stalkers" Mullen et al. (2000) identified five types of stalkers: In addition to Mullen et al., Joseph A. Davis, Ph.D., an American researcher, crime analyst, and university psychology professor at San Diego State University investigated, as
2418-452: A variety of behaviour such as domestic and inter-neighbour disputes. It is rarely used for stalking as portrayed by the media since only a small minority of cases in the survey involved such behaviour." Disruptions in daily life necessary to escape the stalker, including changes in employment , residence and phone numbers, take a toll on the victim's well-being and may lead to a sense of isolation. According to Lamber Royakkers: Stalking
2511-403: Is a series of actions that occur over a period of time. Although stalking is illegal in most areas of the world, some of the actions that contribute to stalking may be legal, such as gathering information, calling someone on the phone, texting, sending gifts, emailing, or instant messaging . They become illegal when they breach the legal definition of harassment (e.g., an action such as sending
2604-411: Is a form of mental assault, in which the perpetrator repeatedly, unwantedly, and disruptively breaks into the life-world of the victim, with whom they have no relationship (or no longer have). Moreover, the separated acts that make up the intrusion cannot by themselves cause the mental abuse, but do taken together (cumulative effect). Stalking has also been described as a form of close relationship between
2697-491: Is a spectrum of what might be called "obsessed following behavior." People who complain obsessively and for years, about a perceived wrong or wrong-doer, when no one else can perceive the injury—and people who cannot or will not "let go" of a person or a place or an idea—comprise a wider group of persons that may be problematic in ways that seem similar to stalking. Some of these people get extruded from their organizations—they may get hospitalized or fired or let go if their behavior
2790-460: Is avoidance in which the individuals try to stay away from each other as much as possible. They, then, reach termination, where the relationship is over and they go their separate ways. L. Lee proposes that there are five stages ultimately leading up to a breakup. Steve Duck outlines a six-stage cycle of relationship breakup: Hill, Rubin and Peplau identify five factors that predict breakup before marriage: Gottman and Levenson (1994) outline
2883-554: Is defined in terms of illegal stalking, but many others do good or even excellent work in their organizations and appear to have just one focus of tenacious obsession. Cyberstalking is the use of computers or other electronic technology to facilitate stalking. In Davis (2001), Lucks identified a separate category of stalkers who instead of a terrestrial means, prefer to perpetrate crimes against their targeted victims through electronic and online means. Amongst college students, Ménard and Pincus found that male stalkers were likely to have
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2976-405: Is grief, because the desire to keep relationships intact despite problems and complications is a natural human desire. This results in individuals undergoing a breakup displaying grief reactions that include symptoms like sleeplessness, depression, and suicidal thoughts . This tendency to express grief and depression is so prevalent that researchers point to it being a significant contributor to
3069-443: Is significant evidence towards certain individuals experiencing feelings of relief, freedom, and happiness following the end of a relationship. There is a high likelihood that these individuals were the one who initiated the breakup in the first place, but research has shown that there have been cases where individuals that have been victims of a breakup recognize that their past relationship was sub-optimal, which allows them to display
3162-510: Is the ending of a relationship . The act is commonly termed "dumping [someone]" in slang when it is initiated by one partner. The term is less likely to be applied to a married couple , where a breakup is typically called a separation or divorce . When a couple engaged to be married breaks up, it is typically called a "broken engagement". People commonly think of breakups in a romantic aspect, however, there are also non-romantic and platonic breakups, and this type of relationship dissolution
3255-417: Is the prevalence of stalking as one partner attempts to maintain contact with the other, however unwanted it may be. This type of behavior exists on a scale that stretches from an amicable breakup with no unwanted harassment behaviors all the way to stalking behaviors that are threatening and distressful to the partner. This behavior stems from an unhappiness with the circumstances following the dissolution of
3348-547: Is unworthy of winning over Hillary. After removing his and Hillary's shackles, Sam jumps to his death. Joe Kane , author of The Phantom of the Movies' Videoscope : The Ultimate Guide to the Latest, Greatest, and Weirdest Genre Videos , called the film "a down-scale Die Hard " and gave it a grade of 2½. TV Guide awarded Lower Level a score 1/4, and found that while it was "glossy" and excelled in its use of sound to build suspense,
3441-441: Is usually caused by failure to maintain a friendship . Susie Orbach (1992) has argued that the dissolution of dating and cohabiting relationships can be as painful as or more painful than divorce because these nonmarital relationships are less socially recognized. Kamiar-K. Rueckert argues with the works of Donald Winnicott that the ability to be alone is an essentially healthy sign of emotional development and maturity. Once
3534-450: Is when the individuals began noticing differences that may seem unnegotiable or place pressure on the relationship. This leads to circumscribing where the individuals begin to pull apart, set boundaries, and have their own independent lives. This may cause issues to arise. At this point, the relationship reaches stagnation where the couple stays together for other reasons rather than their will to do so. Examples include children. The next stage
3627-460: The Cascade Model of Relational Dissolution , in which four negative nonverbal behaviors lead to the breakdown of a marriage/relationship: In 1976, sociologist Diane Vaughan proposed an "uncoupling theory", where there exists a "turning point" in the dynamics of relationship breakup – 'a precise moment when they "knew the relationship was over," when "everything went dead inside " ' – followed by
3720-613: The Criminal Code , titled "criminal harassment", addresses acts which are termed "stalking" in many other jurisdictions. The provisions of the section came into force in August 1993 with the intent of further strengthening laws protecting women. It is a hybrid offence , which may be punishable upon summary conviction or as an indictable offence , the latter of which may carry a prison term of up to ten years. Section 264 has withstood Charter challenges. The Chief, Policing Services Program, for Statistics Canada has stated: ... of
3813-575: The United States Department of Justice also reports that "Males were as likely to report being stalked by a male as by a female offender. 43% of male stalking victims stated that the offender was female, while 41% of male victims stated that the offender was another male. Female victims of stalking were significantly more likely to be stalked by a male (67%) rather than a female (24%) offender." This report provides considerable data by gender and race about both stalking and harassment, obtained via
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3906-681: The 10,756 incidents of criminal harassment reported to police in 2006, 1,429 of these involved more than one accused. In China, simple stalking was treated as a kind of minor offence when it amounted to harassment, so stalkers were usually punished by a small fine or less than 10 days detention under the Public Security Administration Punishment Law. According to the Tort Liability Law, infringement of citizens' privacy shall be subject to tort liability. For stalkers to spy on, secretly photograph, eavesdrop on or spread
3999-486: The 16th century to refer to a prowler or a poacher ( Oxford English Dictionary ), the term stalker was initially used by media in the 20th century to describe people who pester and harass others, initially with specific reference to the harassment of celebrities by strangers who were described as being "obsessed". This use of the word appears to have been coined by the tabloid press in the United States . With time,
4092-417: The 2006 Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS), by the U.S. Census Bureau for the U.S. Department of Justice . In an article in the journal Sex Roles , Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling discusses how gender plays a role in the difference between stalkers and victims. She says, "gender is associated with the types of emotional reactions that are experienced by recipients of stalking related events, including
4185-487: The National Violence Against Women Survey. Every Australian state enacted laws prohibiting stalking during the 1990s, with Queensland being the first state to do so in 1994. The laws vary slightly from state to state, with Queensland's laws having the broadest scope, and South Australian laws the most restrictive. Punishments vary from a maximum of 10 years imprisonment in some states, to a fine for
4278-733: The United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, strangers are considered more dangerous when it comes to stalking than a former partner. Media also plays an important role due to portrayals of male stalking behavior as acceptable, influencing men into thinking it is normal. Since gender roles are socially constructed, sometimes men do not report stalking. She also mentions coercive control theory; "future research will be needed to determine if this theory can predict how changes in social structures and gender-specific norms will result in variations in rates of stalking for men versus women over time in
4371-447: The United States and across the world." Psychologists often group individuals who stalk into two categories: psychotic and nonpsychotic. Some stalkers may have pre-existing psychotic disorders such as delusional disorder , schizoaffective disorder , or schizophrenia . However, most stalkers are nonpsychotic and may exhibit disorders or neuroses such as major depression , adjustment disorder , or substance dependence , as well as
4464-420: The bodies of the two workmen, realizing while doing so that Craig is still alive and is searching for Hillary. Sam incapacitates Craig with a trap, but is unable to kill him due being out of bullets, so he returns to Hillary. Hillary begins seducing Sam, distracting him and allowing her to stab him in the back with a piece of glass, giving her the chance to escape and reunite with Craig. The two try to escape from
4557-573: The breakup. These intrusive distress symptoms manifested in various ways for both the individual who initiated the breakup and their partner, such as being reminded of certain aspects of their behavior or their preferences. Another set of psychological distress symptoms that were reported by individuals who had experienced a romantic relationship breakup fell under the category of avoidance behavior. Being without their partner causes their self-concept to shift as they struggle through emotional distress. This involves an active attempt at denying or ignoring
4650-596: The cases they studied there was more than one stalker, and 40% of the victims said that friends or family of their stalker had also been involved. In 15% of cases, the victim was unaware of any reason for the harassment. Over a quarter of all stalking and harassment victims do not know their stalkers in any capacity. About a tenth responding to the SVS did not know the identities of their stalkers. 11% of victims said they had been stalked for five years or more. In 1999, Pathe, Mullen and Purcell wrote that popular interest in stalking
4743-419: The circumstances of the current situation, or those that led to the dissolution of the relationship. In relation to this, individuals also noted feeling numb and uninterested with the world around them because of the breakup. The combination of this desire to engage in avoidance behaviors and the intrusive memories that may naturally come up cause individuals to feel significant emotional swings and outbursts in
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#17328517563444836-469: The consequences of a breakup. The list of potential factors that have been shown to moderate the effects that an individual might feel are categorized and listed below: The technologically advanced society that currently exists means that much of people's lives are online. People can date online via dating apps or using social media platforms such as Instagram or Facebook. Many relationships have been able to manifest from mediated communication and last
4929-432: The continual clinging to a relationship of an inadequate or dependent person couples with the entitlement of the narcissistic personality, and the persistent jealousy of the paranoid personality. In contrast, resentful stalkers demonstrate an almost "pure culture of persecution ", with delusional disorders of the paranoid type, paranoid personalities, and paranoid schizophrenia . One of the uncertainties in understanding
5022-400: The current judicial system in mainland China, there is a lack of judicial protection for individuals facing illegal stalking, harassment, surveillance, and other stalking behaviors. Even celebrities may not be able to solve it for a long time when faced with stalking of illegitimate meals. Many cases across China have shown that ordinary people who have been stalked may still be unable to solve
5115-412: The degree of fear experienced by the victim." In addition, she hypothesizes that gender may also affect how police handle a case of stalking, how the victim copes with the situation, and how the stalker might view their behavior. She discusses how victims might view certain forms of stalking as normal because of gender socialization influences on the acceptability of certain behaviors. She emphasizes that in
5208-413: The experience. Another positive outcome that has been observed to follow breakup has to do with the lessons that people may have learned from going through the painful experience. The stress-related growth that a person is forced to experience following a breakup causes improvements to their overall character, self-image, and ability to interact with others. These improvements have the potential to improve
5301-401: The face of potential complications in their relationship, for as long as they can bear it. Individuals who had just recently experienced the dissolution of a romantic relationship reported several symptoms of acute psychological distress . These included flashback and intrusive memories associated with their partner, often triggered by important dates associated with either the relationship or
5394-586: The film was ultimately brought down by both its severely padded plot and "the cast behaving like idiots to prevent the tale from finishing early or logically". Empire gave the "enjoyably contrived" film a 2/5, praising the effective suspense sequences, yet criticizing the uncharismatic leads that prevented it "from achieving its potential". Stalker Stalking is unwanted and/or repeated surveillance or contact by an individual or group toward another person. Stalking behaviors are interrelated to harassment and intimidation and may include following
5487-415: The first onset of major depressive disorder in young adults. The extent of these grief reactions is not limited to the time frame immediately following the dissolution of the romantic relationship. Even some time after the breakup, people who are asked to recall depressing or negative events in their lives commonly make reference to traumatic events of this nature. This negative effect can be attributed to
5580-445: The form of irritation, anger, and startle responses. Individuals were noted as being far more paranoid, suspicious, and jealous, often tied towards a desire to know information about their ex-partner . Overall, these psychological distress symptoms come together to result in a significantly lower level of self-esteem among individuals who have just undergone the dissolution of a romantic relationship. Additionally, individuals undergo
5673-405: The lifts, and awkwardly attempts to woo Hillary. When Hillary storms off, outraged over the discovery that Sam had been reading her diaries, a pair of servicemen arrive to look into a fire alarm that Hillary had earlier set off, and are shot to death in front of her by a distraught Sam. Sam captures Hillary and locks her in a secret lounge that contains a shrine dedicated to her, and then goes to hide
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#17328517563445766-418: The lowest severity of stalking in others. Australian anti-stalking laws have some notable features. Unlike many US jurisdictions they do not require the victim to have felt fear or distress as a result of the behaviour, only that a reasonable person would have felt this way. In some states, the anti-stalking laws operate extra-territorially, meaning that an individual can be charged with stalking if either they or
5859-450: The majority of men and women admit engaging in various stalking-like behaviors following a breakup, but stop such behaviors over time, suggesting that "engagement in low levels of unwanted pursuit behaviors for a relatively short amount of time, particularly in the context of a relationship break-up, may be normative for heterosexual dating relationships occurring within U.S. culture." People characterized as stalkers may be accused of having
5952-433: The meaning of stalking changed and incorporated individuals being harassed by their former partners. Pathé and Mullen describe stalking as "a constellation of behaviours in which an individual inflicts upon another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications". Stalking can be defined as the willful and repeated following, watching or harassing of another person. Unlike other crimes, which usually involve one act, stalking
6045-513: The most dangerous type. In the UK, for example, most stalkers are former partners, and evidence indicates that stalking facilitated by mental illness (often covered by the media) accounts for only a minority of cases of alleged stalking. A UK Home Office research study on the use of the Protection from Harassment Act stated: "The study found that the Protection from Harassment Act is being used to deal with
6138-433: The opponent broke into the home with arms and was killed by victim's parents. In the social culture of mainland China, the "stalker" type of courtship is highly respected, that is, as the saying goes, "good women (martyrs) are afraid of stalkers". Literary works also publicly promote such behaviors, and stalking between opposite sexes is thus beautified as courtship. In real life, this type of behavior may even occur when
6231-443: The origins of stalking is that the concept is now widely understood in terms of specific behaviors which are found to be offensive or illegal. As discussed above, these specific (apparently stalking) behaviors may have multiple motivations. In addition, the personality characteristics that are often discussed as antecedent to stalking may also produce behavior that is not conventionally defined as stalking. Some research suggests there
6324-450: The parties, albeit a disjunctive one where the two participants have opposing goals rather than cooperative goals. One participant, often a woman, likely wishes to end the relationship entirely, but may find herself unable to easily do so. The other participant, often but not always a man, wishes to escalate the relationship. It has been described as a close relationship because the duration, frequency, and intensity of contact may rival that of
6417-401: The privacy of others, under Article 42 of the Public Security Administration Punishment Law clearly stipulates that they can be detained for not more than five days or fined not more than five hundred yuan, and if the circumstances are more serious, they can be detained for not less than five days and not more than ten days, and can be fined not more than five hundred yuan. Unfortunately, under
6510-552: The problem after they seek help from the judicial authorities. In the case of Wuhu, Anhui in March 2018, the entangled woman repeatedly rescued the police to no avail and was eventually killed. In the homicide case in Laiyuan, Hebei in July of the same year, women and their families who had been stalked and harassed for a long time also helped the police repeatedly to no avail. It did not end until
6603-525: The proportion of false reports that were due to delusions as 64%. A 2020 study by Sheridan et al. gave figures for lifetime prevalence of perceived gang-stalking at 0.66% for adult women and 0.17% for adult men. According to a study conducted by Purcell, Pathé and Mullen (2002), 23% of the Australian population reported having been stalked. Stieger, Burger and Schild conducted a survey in Austria, revealing
6696-408: The quality of future romantic relationships with other people. This is due to the increased level of maturity displayed by the individual as well as, to a lesser extent, insight into certain things that they must avoid in a relationship to ensure better relationships in the future. While this may not necessarily be a universal positive consequence that affects all people going through a breakup, there
6789-420: The question arises of who would receive full custody of the child(ren). Many times, the court system favors the birth mother, however, in lesbian relationships, one mother could carry the egg of another, so it becomes challenging to determine who the child(ren) biologically belongs to. In gay male relationship dissolutions, this also causes confusion as the majority of gay male parents adopted their children. Due to
6882-448: The relationship exists'. She considered that 'uncoupling is complete when the partners have defined themselves and are defined by others as separate and independent of each other – when being partners is no longer a major source of identity'. Katherine Woodward Thomas , a licensed marriage and family therapist, originated the term " conscious uncoupling " in 2009. Thomas began teaching this new approach to divorce to students throughout
6975-649: The relationship, as well as a misguided belief that the stalking behavior may result in the reforming of the relationship. There is no clear definition of stalking behavior that differentiate it from socially acceptable activities; they become more sinister when they are unwanted and form a persistent pattern. Evidence shows that even in the direst of situations, there is a chance for positive emotions and growth. Breakups are no different, giving victims opportunities for stress-related growth, improving their performance in future relationships, and providing feelings of relief and freedom. Jessica Kansky and Joseph P. Allen conducted
7068-486: The roof by announcing over the PA system that he will find and murder the wounded Craig if she leaves the building. At the rendezvous point, a melancholic Sam handcuffs himself to Hillary and threatens to kill them both by leaping off of the roof. Craig appears, grabs Hillary, and professes both his love and willingness to die for her, which finally causes Sam to realize that Craig genuinely does care about Hillary, and that he himself
7161-408: The same emotions of relief, freedom, and happiness. While individuals that have experienced a breakup are likely to experience a number of different positive and negative effects once the relationship has run its course, different people can expect these to manifest in varying degrees. This is because there are several mitigating factors that can either minimize or amplify the extent to which one feels
7254-539: The sample group were subsequently admitted to hospital, and 26% treated in the community. A similar retrospective study published in 2009 in Psychological Medicine , based on a sample of threats to the royal family kept by the Metropolitan Police Service over a period of 15 years, suggested that 83.6% of these letter-writers had a serious mental illness. Dressing, Kuehner and Gass conducted
7347-400: The sealed building through a tunnel in a storage area, but they find it blocked off, and so are forced to try and fight Sam off, which they do by luring him into a trap that leaves him hanging upside-down from an elevator. While Hillary breaks through the office tower's front door with a piece of construction equipment that she had unearthed, Sam frees himself, and forces Hillary to meet him on
7440-571: The severity of the grief reaction that people who suffer through a breakup display, making a significant mark in their lives that they are unlikely to forget. In addition to these specific negative effects, individuals who are suffering through a breakup report a general decline in their psychological well-being. The general negative emotion that they feel often triggers other behaviors and habits that are either detrimental to their mental health or signify poor mental health conditions. These include: A behavior that has been noticed following some breakups
7533-504: The stalking was related to co-workers, members of a gang, fraternities, sororities, etc., did not have its responses indicated in the survey results as released by the DOJ. The data for this report was obtained via the 2006 Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS), conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Department of Justice. According to a United Kingdom study by Sheridan and Boon, in 5% of
7626-449: The target to refrain or become involved in some particular activity regardless of the victim's consent. For example, most prosecutions in this stalking category have been against anti-abortionists who stalk doctors in an attempt to discourage the performance of abortions. Stalkers may fit categories with paranoia disorders . Intimacy-seeking stalkers often have delusional disorders involving erotomanic delusions. With rejected stalkers,
7719-404: The terms "female harassment", "obsessive following" or "psychological rape". The difficulties associated with defining this term exactly (or defining it at all) are well documented. This is due in part to overlapping between accepted courtship behaviors and stalking behaviors. Context must be relied on to determine if a specific action is a stalking behavior. Having been used since at least
7812-398: The two parties do not know each other and the stalked person does not know in advance. Through online platforms and other social media, with the help of the convenience of online communication, individuals and institutions directly participate in, promote, and support various "courtship-style" tracing and stalking cases. Breakup A relationship breakup , breakup , or break-up
7905-417: The victim are in the relevant state. Most Australian states provide the option of a restraining order in cases of stalking, breach of which is punishable as a criminal offence. There has been relatively little research into Australian court outcomes in stalking cases, although Freckelton (2001) found that in the state of Victoria , most stalkers received fines or community based dispositions. Section 264 of
7998-437: The victim in fear can be considered stalking", although the rights afforded to victims may vary depending on jurisdiction. A 1995 research paper titled "Stalking Strangers and Lovers" was among the first places to use the term "stalking" to describe the common occurrence of males after a breakup who aggressively pursue their female former partner. Prior to that paper instead of the term "stalking", people more commonly used
8091-405: The victim in person or monitoring them. The term stalking is used with some differing definitions in psychiatry and psychology , as well as in some legal jurisdictions as a term for a criminal offense . According to a 2002 report by the U.S. National Center for Victims of Crime , "virtually any unwanted contact between two people that directly or indirectly communicates a threat or places
8184-621: The victims were likely to have an "avoidant attachment". According to a U.S. Department of Justice special report a significant number of people reporting stalking incidents claim that they had been stalked by more than one person, with 18.2% reporting that they were stalked by two people, 13.1% reporting that they had been stalked by three or more. The report did not break down these cases into numbers of victims who claimed to have been stalked by several people individually, and by people acting in concert. A question asked of respondents reporting three or more stalkers by polling personnel about whether
8277-428: The victims, a January 2009 report from the United States Department of Justice reported the rate of stalking victimization for female was approximately 2% and for male was approximately 0.7%. As for the perpetrators, many studies have shown that approximately 80-90% of stalking perpetrators are male. According to one study, women often target other women, whereas men primarily stalk women. A January 2009 report from
8370-484: The victims, the stalker was known, being a prior intimate partner in 40%, a friend or acquaintance in 23% and a colleague at work in 13% of cases. As a consequence, 72% of the victims reported having changed their lifestyle. 52% of former and ongoing stalking victims reported having a currently impaired ( pathological ) psychological well-being . There was no significant difference between the incidence of stalking in rural and urban areas. In 1998, Budd and Mattinson found
8463-464: The world. The term received popularization by Gwyneth Paltrow , who used the phrase to describe her divorce with Chris Martin . Paltrow had her doctors Dr. Sherry Sami , and Habib Sadeghi and his wife explain the Conscious Uncoupling when she first made the news of her divorce public. A "conscious uncoupling is the ability to understand that every irritation and argument [within a marriage]
8556-405: Was a signal to look inside ourselves and identify a negative internal object that needed healing," Habib Sadeghi explained. "From this perspective, there are no bad guys, just two people, it's about people as individuals, not just the relationship". Depending on the individual, breakups can be stressful, unpleasant, and traumatic events. Both parties could feel a large number of negative effects as
8649-469: Was promoting false claims. In 2004, Sheridan and Blaauw said that they estimated that 11.5% of claims in a sample of 357 reported claims of stalking were false. According to Sheridan and Blaauw, 70% of false stalking reports were made by people experiencing delusions , stating that "after eight uncertain cases were excluded, the false reporting rate was judged to be 11.5%, with the majority of false victims suffering delusions (70%)." Another study estimated
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