99-639: The Lotus T128 is a Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) designed by former Sauber technical director James Key and built by Advanced Design and Engineering Systems Solutions (ADESS) and Kodewa . It was used by Kodewa in the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship under the name Lotus . Stéphane Chosse, the founder of ADESS, first proposed building a Le Mans prototype car in March 2011. The vehicle's construction began in February 2013, eleven months after Kodewa acquired two chassis. The T128's aerodynamic study
198-574: A Le Mans court ordered their return after Lotus proved that the invoices were fictitious. Both cars failed to finish the race and the subsequent round in São Paulo . Lotus took their only podium of the season at the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas , but finished no higher than sixth in the final three races. The two T128s finished seventh and eighth in the FIA Endurance Trophy for LMP2 Teams. After
297-438: A vacuum bag can be used. A fiberglass, carbon fiber, or aluminum mold is polished and waxed, and has a release agent applied before the fabric and resin are applied, and the vacuum is pulled and set aside to allow the piece to cure (harden). There are three ways to apply the resin to the fabric in a vacuum mold. The first method is manual and called a wet layup, where the two-part resin is mixed and applied before being laid in
396-401: A 2/2 weave. The process by which most CFRPs are made varies, depending on the piece being created, the finish (outside gloss) required, and how many of the piece will be produced. In addition, the choice of matrix can have a profound effect on the properties of the finished composite. Many CFRP parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric that is backed with fiberglass. A tool called
495-434: A 4.2-litre naturally-aspirated V8. In seasons 2017 through 2020, the engine produced about 600 bhp . Dallara , Onroak Automotive (Ligier), Oreca and the joint-venture Riley Tech / Multimatic were selected by FIA as the four exclusive chassis constructors, which must be closed-cockpit designs. Before the start of the 2021 season LMP2 cars have been slowed down to ensure the necessary lap time difference between
594-437: A central wing-box made of CFRP; it is the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross-section instead of the wings being partitioned span-wise into sections. This flowing, continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency. Moreover, the trailing edge, along with the rear bulkhead, empennage , and un-pressurised fuselage are made of CFRP. However, many delays have pushed order delivery dates back because of problems with
693-447: A chopper gun is used to quickly create these composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin are mixed on the spot. The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use. Manufacturing methods may include
792-462: A core. Applications for CFRPs include the following: The Airbus A350 XWB is built of 53% CFRP including wing spars and fuselage components, overtaking the Boeing 787 Dreamliner , for the aircraft with the highest weight ratio for CFRP, which is 50%. This was one of the first commercial aircraft to have wing spars made from composites. The Airbus A380 was one of the first commercial airliners to have
891-505: A mold, with epoxy either pre-impregnated into the fibers (also known as pre-preg ) or "painted" over it. High-performance parts using single molds are often vacuum-bagged and/or autoclave -cured, because even small air bubbles in the material will reduce strength. An alternative to the autoclave method is to use internal pressure via inflatable air bladders or EPS foam inside the non-cured laid-up carbon fiber. For simple pieces of which relatively few copies are needed (one or two per day),
990-432: A number of field applications strengthening concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures. Their use in industry can be either for retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or prestressing) material instead of steel from the outset of a project. Retrofitting has become the increasingly dominant use of the material in civil engineering, and applications include increasing
1089-422: A refinery in a one-step process. Capture and reuse of the carbon and monomers is then possible. CFRPs can also be milled or shredded at low temperature to reclaim the carbon fiber; however, this process shortens the fibers dramatically. Just as with downcycled paper, the shortened fibers cause the recycled material to be weaker than the original material. There are still many industrial applications that do not need
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#17331057861721188-720: A single carbon fiber with diameter of 5–7 μm is sealed in a glass capillary. At the tip the capillary is either sealed with epoxy and polished to make carbon-fiber disk microelectrode or the fiber is cut to a length of 75–150 μm to make carbon-fiber cylinder electrode. Carbon-fiber microelectrodes are used either in amperometry or fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for detection of biochemical signalling. CFRPs are now widely used in sports equipment such as in squash, tennis, and badminton racquets, sport kite spars, high-quality arrow shafts, hockey sticks, fishing rods, surfboards , high end swim fins, and rowing shells . Amputee athletes such as Jonnie Peacock use carbon fiber blades for running. It
1287-463: Is a type of sports prototype race car used in various races and championships, including the 24 Hours of Le Mans , FIA World Endurance Championship , IMSA SportsCar Championship , European Le Mans Series , and Asian Le Mans Series . Le Mans Prototypes were created by the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO). The technical requirements for an LMP include bodywork covering all mechanical elements of
1386-409: Is dependent on the fiber orientation and machining condition of the cutting process. To reduce tool wear various types of coated tools are used in machining CFRP and CFRP-metal stack. The primary element of CFRPs is a carbon filament ; this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon , or petroleum pitch . For synthetic polymers such as PAN or rayon, the precursor
1485-438: Is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and mechanical processes to initially align the polymer chains in a way to enhance the final physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms ( carbonization ), producing
1584-518: Is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly
1683-613: Is most widely used in the "safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars. The first carbon fiber monocoque chassis was introduced in Formula One by McLaren in the 1981 season. It was designed by John Barnard and was widely copied in the following seasons by other F1 teams due to the extra rigidity provided to the chassis of the cars. Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRPs extensively in their manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components. As far back as 1971,
1782-413: Is much more difficult to process and more expensive. Despite their high initial strength-to-weight ratios, a design limitation of CFRPs are their lack of a definable fatigue limit . This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out. While steel and many other structural metals and alloys do have estimable fatigue or endurance limits, the complex failure modes of composites mean that
1881-409: Is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy , but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester , vinyl ester , or nylon, are sometimes used. The properties of the final CFRP product can be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix (resin). The most common additive is silica , but other additives such as rubber and carbon nanotubes can be used. Carbon fiber
1980-646: Is significantly improved if a thin layer of carbon fibers is moulded near the surface because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat. CFRPs are being used in an increasing number of high-end products that require stiffness and low weight, these include: CFRPs have a long service lifetime when protected from the sun. When it is time to decommission CFRPs, they cannot be melted down in air like many metals. When free of vinyl (PVC or polyvinyl chloride ) and other halogenated polymers, CFRPs can be thermally decomposed via thermal depolymerization in an oxygen-free environment. This can be accomplished in
2079-442: Is sometimes referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer ( GFRP is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer ). CFRP are composite materials . In this case the composite consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides its strength. The matrix is usually a thermosetting plastic, such as polyester resin, to bind
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#17331057861722178-401: Is the total composite modulus, V m {\displaystyle V_{m}} and V f {\displaystyle V_{f}} are the volume fractions of the matrix and fiber respectively in the composite, and E m {\displaystyle E_{m}} and E f {\displaystyle E_{f}} are the elastic moduli of
2277-436: Is typical). As a consequence, only small cross-sectional areas of the material are used. Small areas of very high strength but moderate stiffness material will significantly increase strength, but not stiffness. CFRPs can also be used to enhance shear strength of reinforced concrete by wrapping fabrics or fibers around the section to be strengthened. Wrapping around sections (such as bridge or building columns) can also enhance
2376-412: Is used as a shank plate in some basketball sneakers to keep the foot stable, usually running the length of the shoe just above the sole and left exposed in some areas, usually in the arch. Controversially, in 2006, cricket bats with a thin carbon-fiber layer on the back were introduced and used in competitive matches by high-profile players including Ricky Ponting and Michael Hussey . The carbon fiber
2475-484: The 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans race weekend, and its scheduled first test in December was delayed by seven weeks to allow for the installation of additional parts. Both cars failed to finish the season-opening 2013 6 Hours of Silverstone but finished in the top six at Spa-Francorchamps . A legal dispute over unpaid invoices arose during the 24 Hours of Le Mans , resulting in the cars being temporarily seized by bailiffs until
2574-603: The Bavarian capital of Munich 's high-technology park. The T128 was also designed to meet the 2014 Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) regulations, which significantly improved driver safety and visibility. The project was overseen by Kodewa co-founder Romulus Kolles, Lotus F1 Team manager Patrick Louis, Gravity Charouz Racing manager Antonin Charouz, and Petr Ptacek, owner of Czech car manufacturer Praga . Former Sauber technical director James Key assisted them. With Lotus as title sponsor,
2673-633: The Citroën SM offered optional lightweight carbon fiber wheels. Use of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the majority of their products. CFRPs have become a notable material in structural engineering applications. Studied in an academic context as to their potential benefits in construction, CFRPs have also proved themselves cost-effective in
2772-580: The brittle nature of CFRPs, in contrast to the ductility of steel. Though design codes have been drawn up by institutions such as the American Concrete Institute , there remains some hesitation among the engineering community about implementing these alternative materials. In part, this is due to a lack of standardization and the proprietary nature of the fiber and resin combinations on the market. Carbon fibers are used for fabrication of carbon-fiber microelectrodes . In this application typically
2871-474: The ductility of the section, greatly increasing the resistance to collapse under dynamic loading. Such 'seismic retrofit' is the major application in earthquake-prone areas, since it is much more economic than alternative methods. If a column is circular (or nearly so) an increase in axial capacity is also achieved by wrapping. In this application, the confinement of the CFRP wrap enhances the compressive strength of
2970-546: The safety car . Hence, both Lotus cars finished the race eighth and tenth. Bouchut replaced Rossiter, who was unavailable due to a Super Formula commitment at the Suzuka Circuit , for the 6 Hours of Shanghai . The No. 31 car qualified seventh, while the No. 32 car started eighth. In the first hour, Holzer and Niclas Jönsson 's No. 57 AF Corse Ferrari 458 Italia collided, damaging the No. 32 car's left-rear corner and forcing it into
3069-774: The 2015–2019 first-generation ruleset were the Ginetta-Juno P3 , Ligier JS P3 , Norma M30 , ADESS-03 , and the Ave-Riley AR-02. The cars were eligible in a number of series, such as the Asian Le Mans Series, the European Le Mans Series, as well as the V de V Endurance Series and the IMSA Prototype Challenge . A number of championships for the class have also been created, such as the FRD LMP3 series and
Lotus T128 (Le Mans Prototype) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3168-790: The British LMP3 Cup. First-generation cars were powered by a 5.0-litre normally-aspirated Nissan VK50 V8 engine , producing 310 kW (420 hp). A 2nd Generation ruleset was introduced for 2020, with new cars introduced: the Ginetta G61-LT-P3 , Ligier JS P320 , Duqueine D-08 , and the ADESS-03 Evo. These cars can be built from its predecessors using an upgrade kit. The new LMP3 prototypes are used in Asian Le Mans Series, Michelin Le Mans Cup , IMSA VP Racing SportsCar Challenge , European Le Mans Series, and Prototype Cup Germany. For
3267-497: The FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC) and in the 24 Hours of Le Mans from the 2021 season . Non-hybrid LMP1 cars were eligible to be "grandfathered" for two more seasons and compete alongside the new class for the 2021 to 2022 seasons. Starting from the 2023 season of WEC and IMSA SportsCar Championship, Le Mans Hypercars are joined by Le Mans Daytona h (LMDh) cars. These two kinds of prototypes will form
3366-623: The GT class regulations, forcing the ACO to promote them as prototypes. In 2000, changes were made to the LMP regulations, as the ACO once again split the open-cockpit LMP class. The two new classes became known as "LMP900" and "LMP675", with the numbers denoting the minimum weight requirements (in kilograms) for each class. The LMP900s were to be more powerful and faster in top speed, but also heavier and more cumbersome. The LMP675s were to be smaller and more nimble, yet lack
3465-515: The Group C cars with Le Mans Prototypes . Two classes were created, with LMP1s running large displacement custom-built engines that were usually turbocharged, and LMP2s using the smaller displacement production-based engines. Both classes were required to have open cockpits. However, LMP1 cars that year were just former Group C cars, some still with closed cockpits ( Toyota 94C-V , Courage C32 , Kremer K8 Spyder , Porsche 962C GTI , ALD C289 and Alpa LM). At
3564-724: The Hypercar category, a single aero kit has been made mandatory across the whole season and is limited to the Le Mans specification in the WEC; the ELMS teams have retained the right to switch between the aero kits. LMP3 is an entry-level prototype class intended for introducing young drivers and new teams to endurance racing before they progress to the higher classes of prototype racing, LMP2 and ultimately Hypercar. LMP3 uses closed-cockpit chassis, which can be built by any licensed constructor. Cars eligible for
3663-644: The Kodewa team adopted the Lotus name. Kodewa planned to sell the T128 to client teams for use in other championships. Altair Engineering 's computer-aided design software was used for the car study. ADESS engineers used the HyperMesh tool to obtain numerical simulations using finite elements. Finally, the use of the Radioss software enabled the simulation of crash tests, which influenced
3762-583: The LMP2 and a new class—Hypercar. In the original version of the new ruleset, revealed in November 2020, only the power of the Gibson engine has been reduced—to 560 bhp. Right before the start of the season, the cars were further weakened, by trimming an additional 20 bhp to a total of 540 bhp. The minimum weight of the cars has also been increased by 20 kg and has been set at 950 kg. Furthermore, mirroring
3861-436: The LMP2 grid, the two Lotus T128s qualified seventh and eighth. In the first hour, Liuzzi collided with the No. 35 OAK Racing Nissan Morgan LMP2 , sending the No. 31 car into the gravel trap . A few minutes later, Kraihamer made an error and collided with Richard Lietz 's No. 92 Porsche 911 RSR left-rear corner. The Lotus stopped for 20 laps at turn ten before being declared a non-finisher due to heavy damage. Competing with
3960-417: The No. 31 T128 and Holzer, Kraihamer and Charouz raced the No. 32 vehicle. Due to variable weather conditions, Kraihamer and Charouz qualified fifth on the grid in class, while Liuzzi and Bouchut qualified sixth. During the first hour, the No. 31 car was forced into the pit lane due to electrical issues, while Charouz and Nicolas Minassian 's No. 49 Pecom Racing Nissan Oreca 03 entry collided. Later,
4059-561: The No. 31 car's steering issues prevented it from finishing, and the No. 32 car's electrical problems prevented it from completing enough laps to be classified in the final results. Rossiter returned to Lotus for the season's second race, the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps , and replaced Bouchut as one of the three drivers of the No. 32 car. Both cars started from the fourth row of the grid with Liuzzi and Rossiter's No. 31 T128 seventh and Holter and Kraihamer's sister No. 32 vehicle eighth. Due to alternator issues, both vehicles were slowed down in
Lotus T128 (Le Mans Prototype) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4158-511: The T128, the Lotus team accumulated 37 and 11 points for both cars, placing them seventh and eighth respectively in the FIA Endurance Trophy for LMP2 Teams. After the season, Lotus switched to the LMP1 class and replaced the T128s with the new CLM P1/01 car. (key) Races in bold indicates pole position . Races in italics indicates fastest lap. Le Mans Prototype A Le Mans Prototype ( LMP )
4257-535: The back of the Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) grid for failing to have all three of their drivers set qualifying lap times within 110 per cent of the class leader's pole time. Weeda spun entering the second Mulsanne Chicane and beached the No. 31 car across the kerbs in the second hour due to the changing weather. The car pulled over at the side of the track after 17 laps and was declared retired four hours later with electrical problems. The No. 32 crew were impeded by
4356-479: The best efficiency rate, engineers used the S65 production block, reducing its capacity to 3,600 cc (220 cu in). The engine produces 450 hp (340 kW) and a maximum speed of 9,500 revolutions per minute (rpm). When the driver reaches 7,000 rpm, the engine produces 405 NM of torque. Hewland Transmissions custom-designed and installed a six-speed sequential gearbox onto the car's engine. A single intake
4455-426: The brittle fracture mechanics presents unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material and finding alternative polymer matrix. One such material with high promise is PEEK , which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK
4554-529: The car was made public on 1 August. Lotus planned to test the T128 in the first week of December 2012, but due to late part fitting, those plans were postponed to the third week of January 2013. That month, the team announced their intention to compete in the World Endurance Championship. Lotus also confirmed the return of Thomas Holzer and Kevin Weeda from the previous season. Less than a month later,
4653-466: The car's black and gold livery. The suspension setup at the front and rear of the vehicle was a double wishbone pushrod actuated torsion bar with dampers housed inside the car's monocoque. It had bodywork elements that directed airflow into the chassis. Its engine, a naturally aspirated V8 variant of the BMW S65 used in the company's M3 model, was angled at 90 degrees, and rebadged by Praga. For
4752-665: The car. As of 2023, there are two classes within Le Mans Prototypes, designated LMP2 and LMP3 . While not as fast as open-wheel Formula One cars around a track, the LMP1s were the fastest closed-wheel racing cars used in circuit racing. Le Mans Prototypes are considered a class above production-based grand tourer cars, which compete alongside them in sports car racing . Later, LMP1 designs included hybrid cars that use electric motors to assist acceleration. The Le Mans Prototype LMP1 class has been replaced by Le Mans Hypercars in
4851-546: The classic Can-Am (CA) name for their prototypes. Since 2004, most series have switched to referring to these cars as Le Mans Prototypes . The American Le Mans Series , the successor to the IMSA GT Championship and the predecessor of the TUDOR United SportsCar Championship, officially referred to the cars simply as Prototypes (P1, P2, or PC). An LMP is commonly referred to as a Le Mans car in
4950-407: The concrete. However, although large increases are achieved in the ultimate collapse load, the concrete will crack at only slightly enhanced load, meaning that this application is only occasionally used. Specialist ultra-high modulus CFRP (with tensile modulus of 420 GPa or more) is one of the few practical methods of strengthening cast iron beams. In typical use, it is bonded to the tensile flange of
5049-538: The costs, FIA introduced a new set of LMP2 regulations, which will be locked in through 2020, aiming for a significant power increase, to the range of 150 horsepower (which is expected to lead to a four-second decrease in lap time at Le Mans). Gibson Technology is the exclusive engine supplier for LMP2, producing a four-litre normally-aspirated V8. Biofuels , specifically petrol with 10% ethanol and biodiesel ( BTL ), are allowed in both LMP1 and LMP2 categories. The fuel tank size and minimum weight for non-hybrid cars
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#17331057861725148-530: The design of the monohull's front nose. The scale wind tunnel at the Mercedes-Benz Formula One team's Brackley headquarters was used to develop the design's aerodynamics. Choose stated that the car's aerodynamics were the main priority in its design, and he took a similar approach to his years in Formula One . The rollover protection structure is integrated into the carbon fibre reinforced polymer chassis. Automotive futurist Daniel Simon designed
5247-409: The desired component. The benefit is the speed of the entire process. Some car manufacturers, such as BMW, claimed to be able to cycle a new part every 80 seconds. However, this technique has a very high initial cost since the molds require CNC machining of very high precision. For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used to make CFRP parts by winding filaments around a mandrel or
5346-550: The fatigue failure properties of CFRPs are difficult to predict and design against; however emerging research has shed light on the effects of low velocity impacts on composites. Low velocity impacts can make carbon fibre polymers susceptible to damage. As a result, when using CFRPs for critical cyclic-loading applications, engineers may need to design in considerable strength safety margins to provide suitable component reliability over its service life. Environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on
5445-401: The final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound onto bobbins . From these fibers, a unidirectional sheet is created. These sheets are layered onto each other in a quasi-isotropic layup, e.g. 0°, +60°, or −60° relative to each other. From the elementary fiber, a bidirectional woven sheet can be created, i.e. a twill with
5544-495: The following: One method of producing CFRP parts is by layering sheets of carbon fiber cloth into a mold in the shape of the final product. The alignment and weave of the cloth fibers is chosen to optimize the strength and stiffness properties of the resulting material. The mold is then filled with epoxy and is heated or air-cured. The resulting part is very corrosion-resistant, stiff, and strong for its weight. Parts used in less critical areas are manufactured by draping cloth over
5643-415: The form of hydrogen embrittlement has been blamed for the gradual deterioration of the prestressing wires in many PCCP lines. Over the past decade, CFRPs have been used to internally line PCCP, resulting in a fully structural strengthening system. Inside a PCCP line, the CFRP liner acts as a barrier that controls the level of strain experienced by the steel cylinder in the host pipe. The composite liner enables
5742-523: The garage. The other T128 retired due to engine failure while the No. 31 recovered to seventh in class. While Rossiter was announced as returning to co-drive the No. 31 for the season-ending 6 Hours of Bahrain , he was unable to attend, and thus Lucas Auer , the Formula Three European Championship fourth-place finisher and nephew of former Formula One driver Gerhard Berger , filled his place for his debut sports car endurance race. On
5841-409: The grid due to slower traffic. When Kraihamer lost control of the rear of the No. 32 car and hit the left-hand side of Stéphane Sarrazin 's faster No. 8 Toyota TS030 Hybrid , the No. 32 car's race ended early. As a result, both vehicles ploughed into the turn three outside tyre barrier. Both drivers were unhurt. Bouchut's No. 31 vehicle had gearbox problems from the start of the race and was forced into
5940-448: The left door becoming loose twice and it later lost its rear body cover. Furthermore, the trio's lack of experience due to their young combined age and reoccurring engine overheating issues dropped the car down the order. In the 17th hour, a bell housing failure in the No. 32 car damaged its fitted auxiliaries, curtailing Lotus's race prematurely. Lotus filed a lawsuit against Chosse, ADESS, and SCE Solutions on June 17 after learning that
6039-508: The legal battle is ongoing, For the 6 Hours of São Paulo , Rossiter was absent because of a Super GT commitment in Japan and Liuzzi was committed to racing in the Superstars Series , leaving Weeda and Bouchut to operate the No. 31 car as a two-person entry. Kraihamer and Holzer were among the top five in their class, while the second Lotus of Weeda and Bouchut were two places further back on
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#17331057861726138-440: The load capacity of old structures (such as bridges, beams, ceilings, columns and walls) that were designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing today, seismic retrofitting, and repair of damaged structures. Retrofitting is popular in many instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed the cost of strengthening using CFRP. Applied to reinforced concrete structures for flexure,
6237-419: The manufacture of these parts. Many aircraft that use CFRPs have experienced delays with delivery dates due to the relatively new processes used to make CFRP components, whereas metallic structures have been studied and used on airframes for decades, and the processes are relatively well understood. A recurrent problem is the monitoring of structural ageing, for which new methods are constantly investigated, due to
6336-568: The matrix and fibers respectively. The other extreme case of the elastic modulus of the composite with the fibers oriented transverse to the applied load can be found using the equation: The fracture toughness of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is governed by the mechanisms: 1) debonding between the carbon fiber and polymer matrix, 2) fiber pull-out, and 3) delamination between the CFRP sheets. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0.5% strain to failure. Although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus,
6435-619: The matrix in CFRPs such as compressive, interlaminar shear, and impact properties. The epoxy matrix used for engine fan blades is designed to be impervious against jet fuel, lubrication, and rain water, and external paint on the composites parts is applied to minimize damage from ultraviolet light. Carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum or mild steel but not to stainless steel or titanium. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics are very hard to machine, and cause significant tool wear. The tool wear in CFRP machining
6534-677: The media. The first use of what would become Le Mans Prototypes was at the 1992 24 Hours of Le Mans . In an attempt to increase the number of entrants beyond the small field of Group C competitors that the World Sportscar Championship had to offer, older Porsche 962s were allowed entry in Category 3. To further increase the size of the field, small open-cockpit race cars using production road car engines which were raced in small national championships were allowed in Category 4. Later, ACO announced its intentions to completely replace
6633-433: The mold and placed in the bag. The other one is done by infusion, where the dry fabric and mold are placed inside the bag while the vacuum pulls the resin through a small tube into the bag, then through a tube with holes or something similar to evenly spread the resin throughout the fabric. Wire loom works perfectly for a tube that requires holes inside the bag. Both of these methods of applying resin require hand work to spread
6732-647: The need to re-true a wheel and the reduced mass reduces the moment of inertia of the wheel. CFRP spokes are rare and most carbon wheelsets retain traditional stainless steel spokes. CFRPs also appear increasingly in other components such as derailleur parts, brake and shifter levers and bodies, cassette sprocket carriers, suspension linkages, disc brake rotors, pedals, shoe soles, and saddle rails. Although strong and light, impact, over-torquing, or improper installation of CFRP components has resulted in cracking and failures, which may be difficult or impossible to repair. The fire resistance of polymers and thermo-set composites
6831-427: The pit lane. Bouchut was able to return to the track but the car was not classified in the final results. Lotus mechanics changed the No. 31 car's engine after practice for the inaugural 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas , the fourth since the start of the season, resulting in a three-minute stop-and-go penalty for the team. The No. 31 car set the sixth-fastest average LMP2 lap time in qualifying, and Charouz went into
6930-494: The polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While CFRPs demonstrate excellent corrosion resistance, the effect of moisture at wide ranges of temperatures can lead to degradation of the mechanical properties of CFRPs, particularly at the matrix-fiber interface. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the moisture plasticizes the polymer matrix. This leads to significant changes in properties that are dominantly influenced by
7029-436: The proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer. The two different equations governing the net elastic modulus of composite materials using the properties of the carbon fibers and the polymer matrix can also be applied to carbon fiber reinforced plastics. The equation: is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. E c {\displaystyle E_{c}}
7128-415: The race but were still able to finish in their respective class positions (albeit switched with the No. 32 in seventh and the No. 31 in eighth). Bouchut set the fastest time for the No. 31 car in the first qualifying session for the 24 Hours of Le Mans , placing him 15th in class, while Holzer secured 16th for the No. 32 car in the third (and final) qualifying session. Soon after, the No. 32 was relegated to
7227-410: The rear of Sarrazin's No. 8 Toyota TS030 Hybrid as they approached the first corner, sending the latter car into a spin. Rossiter collided with Pierre Kaffer 's No. 49 Pecom Racing Nissan Oreca 03 at the first turn of the race. Due to extensive damage to the suspension of the T128, Rossiter was forced to withdraw the car from the race. But Kraihamer, Charouz, and Holzer's No. 32 car finished third to earn
7326-414: The reinforcements together. Because CFRPs consist of two distinct elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. Reinforcement gives CFRPs their strength and rigidity, measured by stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRPs have directional strength properties. The properties of a CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and
7425-649: The resin evenly for a glossy finish with very small pin-holes. A third method of constructing composite materials is known as a dry layup. Here, the carbon fiber material is already impregnated with resin (pre-preg) and is applied to the mold in a similar fashion to adhesive film. The assembly is then placed in a vacuum to cure. The dry layup method has the least amount of resin waste and can achieve lighter constructions than wet layup. Also, because larger amounts of resin are more difficult to bleed out with wet layup methods, pre-preg parts generally have fewer pinholes. Pinhole elimination with minimal resin amounts generally require
7524-456: The same class structure as the 24 Hours of Le Mans, meaning it was the first championship to use the LMP name. At the same time, the ACO greatly altered their LMP classes. The smaller LMP2 class were briefly eliminated, while a new class of closed-cockpit prototypes was allowed in, known as "LMGTP" (Le Mans grand touring prototype). These cars were evolutions of production-based road cars that the ACO considered too advanced and too fast to fall under
7623-422: The same time, the IMSA GT Championship announced the end of their closed cockpit GTP and Lights classes, deciding as well to replace them with a single open-cockpit class of World Sports Cars equivalent to LMP1. This formula continued up to 1996, with many manufacturers embracing the LMP and WSC classes, including Ferrari , Porsche , and Mazda . In 1997, the first European series based around Le Mans Prototypes
7722-542: The season, Lotus moved into LMP1 and replaced the T128s with a new car, the CLM P1/01 . In March 2011, Stéphane Chosse, founder of the German-based Advanced Design and Engineering Systems Solutions (ADESS), announced preliminary plans to build a Le Mans Prototype car. A year later, German racing team Kodewa ordered two chassis for the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship . ADESS and Kodewa developed it in
7821-475: The second generation, engines were upgraded to the 5.6-litre Nissan VK56 , increasing horsepower to 340 kW (455 hp). For 2025, the engines used in the class are set to be replaced with the twin-turbocharged 3.4-litre Toyota V35A , bringing about a power increase to 350 kW (470 hp). LMPC ( Le Mans Prototype Challenge ) was an earlier entry level class, introduced in 2009, consisting of competitors running identical Oreca FLM09 cars. The class
7920-546: The section, both increasing the stiffness of the section and lowering the neutral axis , thus greatly reducing the maximum tensile stress in the cast iron. In the United States, prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP) account for a vast majority of water transmission mains. Due to their large diameters, failures of PCCP are usually catastrophic and affect large populations. Approximately 19,000 miles (31,000 km) of PCCP were installed between 1940 and 2006. Corrosion in
8019-638: The sportscar championship of the 1970s. However, the USRRC collapsed before the end of 1999, with the series becoming the Rolex Sports Car Series chose to use the FIA's SR1 and SR2 formula instead. 1998 saw a great expansion for the ACO's LMP classes. Following the cancellation of the IMSA GT Championship at the end of 1998, the ACO allowed for the creation of the American Le Mans Series. This series used
8118-709: The steel cylinder to perform within its elastic range, to ensure the pipeline's long-term performance is maintained. CFRP liner designs are based on strain compatibility between the liner and host pipe. CFRPs are more costly materials than commonly used their counterparts in the construction industry, glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRPs) and aramid fiber-reinforced polymers (AFRPs), though CFRPs are, in general, regarded as having superior properties. Much research continues to be done on using CFRPs both for retrofitting and as an alternative to steel as reinforcing or prestressing materials. Cost remains an issue and long-term durability questions still remain. Some are concerned about
8217-429: The strength of full-length carbon fiber reinforcement. For example, chopped reclaimed carbon fiber can be used in consumer electronics, such as laptops. It provides excellent reinforcement of the polymers used even if it lacks the strength-to-weight ratio of an aerospace component. In 2009, Zyvex Technologies introduced carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy and carbon pre-pregs . Carbon nanotube reinforced polymer (CNRP)
8316-466: The team re-signed James Rossiter and Vitantonio Liuzzi to drive one of the two T128s alongside Weeda. Lotus entered just one T128 for the pre-season test session at the Circuit Paul Ricard on March 28. Christophe Bouchut would share the No. 31 car with Liuzzi and Rossiter, and Dominik Kraihamer would share the No. 32 car with Weeda and 2009 Le Mans Series LMP1 champion Jan Charouz . During
8415-430: The team's only podium result of the season. As the team concentrated on finding the ideal setup for the 6 Hours of Fuji , both Lotus T128s qualified for the race in dry and sunny conditions, starting in eighth and ninth places (the No. 31 car ahead of the No. 32 vehicle). Typhoon Wipha 's passing brought heavy rain to the area, preventing any competitive action and limiting the overall race winner to only 16 laps behind
8514-583: The team's owners, Romulus and Colin Kolles , were in debt. Choose filed a complaint in a French court, claiming that the owners of Kolles owed them "a seven-figure amount" in unpaid invoices. On June 18, Chosse responded, and at 17:00 local time, a bailiff seized the two Lotus T128s. Lotus presented fictitious invoices from ADESS, and on the afternoon of June 19, the Le Mans court decided in favour of Lotus. The court mandated that Lotus receive both vehicles back. As of 2018,
8613-503: The top class of endurance racing: Hypercar in WEC and Grand Touring Prototype (GTP) in IMSA. Le Mans Prototypes have used various names depending on the series in which they compete. The FIA 's equivalent cars were referred to as Sports Racers (SR) or Sports Racing Prototypes (SRP). The American IMSA GT Championship termed their cars World Sports Cars (WSC), while the short-lived United States Road Racing Championship (USRRC) used
8712-527: The top speed of the larger class. Both classes were intended to be able to compete for overall wins. Audi , Chrysler , Cadillac , and Panoz opted to use the LMP900 formula, while MG were the only major manufacturer to attempt the LMP675 class. The LMGTP class also continued, with Bentley being the only manufacturer to build a closed-cockpit prototype after the regulation changes in 2000. In 2017, in order to limit
8811-702: The unusual multi-material and anisotropic nature of CFRPs. In 1968 a Hyfil carbon-fiber fan assembly was in service on the Rolls-Royce Conways of the Vickers VC10s operated by BOAC . Specialist aircraft designers and manufacturers Scaled Composites have made extensive use of CFRPs throughout their design range, including the first private crewed spacecraft Spaceship One . CFRPs are widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of their high strength-to-weight ratio. CFRPs are extensively used in high-end automobile racing. The high cost of carbon fiber
8910-407: The use of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out. A quicker method uses a compression mold , also commonly known as carbon fiber forging. This is a two (male and female), or multi-piece mold, usually made out of aluminum or steel and more recently 3D printed plastic. The mold components are pressed together with the fabric and resin loaded into the inner cavity that ultimately becomes
9009-422: The use of CFRPs typically has a large impact on strength (doubling or more the strength of the section is not uncommon), but only moderately increases stiffness (as little as 10%). This is because the material used in such applications is typically very strong (e.g., 3 GPa ultimate tensile strength , more than 10 times mild steel) but not particularly stiff (150 to 250 GPa elastic modulus, a little less than steel,
9108-485: The various sessions, a ruptured oil tank limited the sole car's running for several hours before a replacement arrived and Rossiter drove some installation laps. Lotus were expected to bring two T128s to the season-opening 6 Hours of Silverstone and changed the driver lineups of both cars. Weeda, Bouchut (in for Rossiter who was racing in the Japanese Super Formula Championship ) and Liuzzi drove
9207-446: Was subject to adjustment to reduce the difference in performance between hybrid and non-hybrid cars. There were no limits on the number of cylinders for any type of engine. Bodywork was required to cover all mechanical elements of the car, so that they couldn't be visible when the car is viewed directly from the front, side, or top. The LMP1 cars were generally the most powerful, with higher straight-line speeds. The LMP1 category
9306-430: Was carried out using a computer-aided software mesh tool from Altair Engineering , and aerodynamics was the main priority in its design, with Chosse taking a similar approach as when he was involved in Formula One . It uses a naturally aspirated V8 engine from the BMW S65 , which is also used in the company's M3 model, and produces around 450 horsepower (340 kW). The programme was officially announced during
9405-955: Was claimed to merely increase the durability of the bats, but it was banned from all first-class matches by the ICC in 2007. A CFRP bicycle frame weighs less than one of steel, aluminum, or titanium having the same strength. The type and orientation of the carbon-fiber weave can be designed to maximize stiffness in required directions. Frames can be tuned to address different riding styles: sprint events require stiffer frames while endurance events may require more flexible frames for rider comfort over longer periods. The variety of shapes it can be built into has further increased stiffness and also allowed aerodynamic tube sections. CFRP forks including suspension fork crowns and steerers, handlebars , seatposts , and crank arms are becoming more common on medium as well as higher-priced bicycles. CFRP rims remain expensive but their stability compared to aluminium reduces
9504-1049: Was dropped in European Le Mans Series in 2014 . As the cost of running an LMPC team was found to be comparable to that for an LMP2 team, the class was dropped after the 2017 season in the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. Carbon fibre reinforced polymer Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers ( American English ), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers ( Commonwealth English ), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics , carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic ( CFRP , CRP , CFRTP ), also known as carbon fiber , carbon composite , or just carbon , are extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastics that contain carbon fibers . CFRPs can be expensive to produce, but are commonly used wherever high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness (rigidity) are required, such as aerospace, superstructures of ships, automotive, civil engineering, sports equipment, and an increasing number of consumer and technical applications. The binding polymer
9603-451: Was launched, known as the " International Sports Racing Series ". Using classes similar to LMP1/WSC and LMP2, these cars were known as "SR1" and "SR2" by the FIA. 1998 saw the creation of another series of Le Mans Prototypes, with the new United States Road Racing Championship attempting to break away from the IMSA GT Championship. To differ from IMSA'S WSC class, the USRRC named their open-cockpit prototypes " Can-Am " in an attempt to resurrect
9702-534: Was mounted on the car's roof to allow airflow into it. The Brembo brake discs were made of carbon ceramic materials and also features power steering . The T128 monocoque began production in February 2013, and it was homologated a month later. After the car's launch, Igor Zamorano of Motorpasión wrote of his feeling that its front resembled the Audi R18 . During the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans weekend, Lotus publicly announced its T128 programme. The first picture of
9801-429: Was retired at the end of the 2020 season, replaced by a new top class of the endurance racing: Hypercar . From 2017, in order to limit the costs, FIA introduced a new set of regulations, which will be locked in through 2025. The rules allow a significant power increase (150 horsepower) which is expected to lead to a four-second decrease in lap time at Le Mans. Gibson Technology is the exclusive engine supplier, producing
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