127-594: Lost Horse Valley is a valley in Joshua Tree National Park . It has been called "the centerpiece of the park" because of the quality of its stands of Joshua trees and its geological formations. It contains the Lost Horse Mine , of significant historic importance in the park. 34°0′5.19″N 116°10′40.02″W / 34.0014417°N 116.1777833°W / 34.0014417; -116.1777833 This Riverside County, California -related article
254-486: A box canyon at Cow Camp . Throughout the region, ranchers dug wells and built rainwater catchments called "tanks", such as White Tank and Barker Dam . In 1900, C. O. Barker, a miner and cattleman, built the original Barker Dam, later improved by William "Bill" Keys, a rancher. Grazing continued in the park through 1945. Barker Dam was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1975. Between
381-543: A hot desert climate ( BWh ). According to the United States Department of Agriculture , the plant hardiness zone at the Cottonwood Visitor Center at 3081 ft (939 m) elevation is 8b, with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of 19.8 °F (−6.8 °C). Joshua Tree is becoming hotter and drier due to climate change. From 1895 to 2016 the annual precipitation has dropped by 39% and
508-477: A 10-stamp steam-powered mill. Ryan pumped water from his ranch to the mill and cut timber from the nearby hills to heat water to make steam. Most of the structures associated with the mine fell apart, and for safety reasons the National Park Service plugged the mine, which had collapsed. The Desert Queen Mine on Keys' Desert Queen Ranch was another productive gold mine. In the early 1930s, Keys bought
635-582: A campground. Shorter trails, such as the one-mile hike through Hidden Valley, offer a chance to view the beauty of the park without straying too far into the desert. A section of the California Riding and Hiking Trail meanders for 35 miles (56 km) through the western side of the park. The lookout point at Keys View, towards the south of the park, offers views of the Coachella Valley, the Salton Sea ,
762-534: A choice. Indigenous soldiers who volunteered to fight with the Mexican Army were often abandoned and compensated unfairly. By raiding, indigenous populations were also able to acquire horses and properly tame them to move efficiently during battles. Captive-taking methods, especially that of the Comanche tribe, were also used to the advantage of the Mexican Army as captives would end up assisting indigenous populations in
889-515: A gasoline-powered two-stamp mill, the Wall Street Mill , and moved it to his ranch to process ore. The ranch and mill were added to the NRHP in 1975 and the mine in 1976. Some of the mines in the park yielded copper, zinc, and iron. On August 10, 1936, after Minerva Hoyt and others persuaded the state and federal governments to protect the area, President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the power of
1016-453: A large contingent of Irish- and German-born soldiers, nearly all European states and principalities were represented. It is estimated that the U.S. Army further included 1,500 men from British North America, including French Canadians. Although Polk hoped to avoid a protracted war over Texas, the extended conflict stretched regular army resources, necessitating the recruitment of volunteers with short-term enlistments. Some enlistments were for
1143-449: A military that regularly intervened in politics, the U.S. generally kept its political divisions within the bounds of the institutions of governance. Since Mexico fought the war on its home territory, a traditional support system for troops were women, known as soldaderas . They did not participate in conventional fighting on battlefields, but some soldaderas joined the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in fighting during
1270-531: A mission in San Diego. By 1823, the year Mexico achieved independence from Spain, a Mexican expedition from Los Angeles, in what was then Alta California , is thought to have explored as far east as the Eagle Mountains in what later became the park. Three years later, Jedediah Smith led a group of American fur trappers and explorers along the nearby Mojave Trail , and others soon followed. Two decades after that,
1397-462: A period of months, sometimes just weeks, or even days. Just before the outbreak of the war, liberal General José Joaquín de Herrera was president (December 1844 – December 1845) and willing to engage in talks so long as he did not appear to be caving to the U.S., but he was accused by many Mexican factions of selling out his country ( vendepatria ) for considering it. He was overthrown by Conservative Mariano Paredes (December 1845 – July 1846), who left
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#17328545758641524-511: A policy of colonization to more effectively control the territory. After independence, the Mexican government implemented the policy, granting Moses Austin , a banker from Missouri, a large tract of land in Texas. Austin died before he could bring his plan of recruiting American settlers for the land to fruition, but his son, Stephen F. Austin , brought over 300 American families into Texas. This started
1651-545: A republic in 1824. This government was characterized by instability, and it was ill-prepared for a major international conflict when war broke out with the U.S. in 1846. Mexico had successfully resisted Spanish attempts to reconquer its former colony in the 1820s and resisted the French in the so-called Pastry War of 1838 but the secessionists' success in Texas and the Yucatán against
1778-471: A short, easy walk through the desert, and doing several interesting climbs in a single day is possible. The rocks are all composed of quartz monzonite , a very rough type of granite , made even more so as no snow or ice polishes it as in places such as Yosemite. Some routes are permanently closed, while others are closed temporarily to protect sensitive wildlife in certain seasons. Climbing and bouldering routes that are permanently closed include Energy Crisis,
1905-635: A significant advantage over their Mexican counterparts, such as the Springfield 1841 rifle of the Mississippi Rifles and the Colt Paterson revolver of the Texas Rangers . In the later stages of the war, the U.S. Mounted Rifles were issued Colt Walker revolvers, of which the U.S. Army had ordered 1,000 in 1846. Most significantly, throughout the war, the superiority of the U.S. artillery often carried
2032-592: A sovereign nation, deepened those sectional divisions. Polk had narrowly won the popular vote in the 1844 presidential election and decisively won the Electoral College, but with the annexation of Texas in 1845 and the outbreak of war in 1846, Polk's Democrats lost the House of Representatives to the Whig Party, which opposed the war. Unlike Mexico, which had weak formal state institutions, chaotic changes in government, and
2159-686: A sustained effort to acquire northern Mexican territory, with no success. Historian Peter Guardino states that in the war "the greatest advantage the United States had was its prosperity." With the Industrial Revolution across the Atlantic increasing the demand for cotton for textile factories, there was a large external market for cotton produced by enslaved African-American labor in the southern states. This demand helped fuel expansion into northern Mexico. Although there were political conflicts in
2286-545: A tripartite pact to settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco from Mexico. Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S. territorial acquisition there. The British minister in Mexico, Richard Pakenham , wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in the magnificent Territory of Upper California", saying that "no part of
2413-434: A year, but others were for 3 or 6 months. The best volunteers signed up for a year's service in the summer of 1846, with their enlistments expiring just when General Winfield Scott 's campaign was poised to capture Mexico City. Many did not re-enlist, deciding that they would rather return home than place themselves in harm's way of disease, threat of death or injury on the battlefield, or in guerrilla warfare. Their patriotism
2540-519: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Joshua Tree National Park Joshua Tree National Park is a national park of the United States in southeastern California , east of San Bernardino and Los Angeles and north of Palm Springs . It is named after the Joshua trees ( Yucca brevifolia ) native to the Mojave Desert . Originally declared a national monument in 1936, Joshua Tree
2667-406: Is a threatened reptile species that inhabits creosote bush lowlands in the Mojave Desert . The tortoise is well adapted to the arid conditions and rarely drinks water; instead, most of their water is obtained from the plants they consume. Bobcats are a dominant force in the ecosystem. The California tree frog , Pseudacris cadaverina , is found in the rocky, permanent water sources created by
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#17328545758642794-433: Is charged per night for each camping spot. Reservations are accepted at Black Rock Campground, Cottonwood Campground, Indian Cove Campground, and Jumbo Rocks Campground for October through May, while the other campgrounds are first-come, first-served. Backcountry camping, for those who wish to backpack , is permitted with a few regulations. Several hiking trails are within the park, many of which can be accessed from
2921-457: Is popular with rock climbers and was originally a winter practice area while Yosemite Valley and other parts of the Sierra Nevada were snowbound, but later became an area of interest in its own right. Its thousands of named climbing routes contain all levels of difficulty. The routes are typically short, the rocks being rarely more than 230 ft (70 m) in height, but access is usually
3048-450: Is sparsely forested with Joshua trees. Together with the boulder piles and Skull Rock, the trees make the landscape otherworldly. Temperatures are most comfortable in the spring and fall, with an average high/low of 85 and 50 °F (29 and 10 °C), respectively. Winter brings cooler days, around 60 °F (16 °C), and freezing nights. Snows occur occasionally at higher elevations. Summers are hot, over 100 °F (38 °C) during
3175-607: Is still visible, and only the brightest structures around the Galactic Center of the Milky Way can be distinguished; zodiacal light is visible halfway to the zenith . Birds, lizards , and ground squirrels are most likely to be seen because they are largely active during the day. However, at night, nocturnal desert animals are active. Mostly nocturnal animals include snakes , bighorn sheep , kangaroo rats , coyotes , bobcats , and black-tailed jackrabbits . The desert tortoise
3302-575: The American Civil War . Many officers who had trained at West Point gained experience in the war and later played prominent leadership roles during the Civil War. In Mexico, the war worsened domestic political turmoil and led to a loss of national prestige, as it suffered large losses of life in both its military and civilian population, had its financial foundations undermined, and lost more than half of its territory. Mexico obtained independence from
3429-634: The California Battalion following the outbreak of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma. In November 1845, Polk sent John Slidell , a secret representative, to Mexico City with an offer to the Mexican government of $ 25 million for the Rio Grande border in Texas and Mexico's provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. U.S. expansionists wanted California to thwart any British interests in
3556-513: The Colorado Desert encompasses the eastern part of the park and features habitats of creosote bush scrub, ocotillo , desert saltbush , and mixed scrub including yucca and cholla cactus ( Cylindropuntia bigelovii ). Some areas of such cactus are dense enough to appear as natural gardens. The lower Coachella Valley is on the southeastern side of the park with sandy soil grasslands and desert dunes . The only palm native to California,
3683-830: The Mojaves , used the local resources as they traveled along trails between the Colorado River and the Pacific coast. In the 21st century, small numbers of all four peoples live in the region near the park; the Twentynine Palms Band of Mission Indians , descendants of the Chemehuevi, own a reservation in Twentynine Palms. In 1772, a group of Spaniards led by Pedro Fages made the first European sightings of Joshua trees while pursuing native converts to Christianity who had run away from
3810-516: The Spanish Empire with the Treaty of Córdoba in 1821 after a decade of conflict between the royal army and insurgents for independence, with no foreign intervention. The conflict ruined the silver-mining districts of Zacatecas and Guanajuato . Mexico began as a sovereign nation with its future financial stability from its main export destroyed. Mexico briefly experimented with monarchy , but became
3937-473: The Texian Army during the 1836 Texas Revolution . The Republic of Texas was de facto an independent country, but most of its Anglo-American citizens who had moved from the United States to Texas after 1822 wanted to be annexed by the United States. Sectional politics over slavery in the United States had previously prevented annexation because Texas would have been admitted as a slave state, upsetting
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4064-524: The green darner Anax junius , and the giant desert scorpion Hadrurus arizonensis are arthropods that can grow to be more than 4 inches (10 cm) long. The yucca moth Tegeticula synthetica is responsible for pollinating the Joshua trees after which the park is named. Animals that thrive in Joshua Tree often have special adaptations for dealing with limited water and high summer temperatures. The smaller mammals and all reptiles take refuge from
4191-543: The light pollution typical in urban areas. In 2017, the International Dark-Sky Association designated Joshua Tree a Dark Sky Park . On clear nights around new moon , the sky darkness of Joshua Tree is rated a class 2–4 on the Bortle scale . This ranges from an "average dark sky" (class 2) in the easternmost region of the park to a sky quality typical of a rural/ suburban transition (class 4) in
4318-459: The 1860s and the 1940s, miners worked about 300 pit mines, mostly small, in what later became the park. The most successful, the Lost Horse Mine , produced gold and silver worth about $ 5 million in today's currency. Johnny Lang and others, the original owners of the Lost Horse Mine, installed a two- stamp mill to process ore at the site, and the next owner, J.D. Ryan , replaced it with
4445-536: The 1906 Antiquities Act to establish Joshua Tree National Monument, protecting about 825,000 acres (1,289.1 sq mi; 3,338.7 km ). In 1950, the size of the park was reduced by about 290,000 acres (453.1 sq mi; 1,173.6 km ) to open the land to more mining. The monument was redesignated as a national park on October 31, 1994, by the Desert Protection Act , which also added 234,000 acres (365.6 sq mi; 947.0 km ). In 2019,
4572-534: The California fan palm ( Washingtonia Filifera ), occurs naturally in five oases in the park, rare areas where water occurs naturally year-round, and all forms of wildlife abound. Invasive plants such as cheat grass and red brome contribute to the worsening of wildfires. During wetter periods fills in below and among the pines and oak. In drier times, they die back but do not quickly decompose. This makes wildfires hotter and more destructive, which kills some of
4699-551: The Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves." John L. O'Sullivan , a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recalled "The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt ... [The volunteers] robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of
4826-471: The Natives. In 1829, because of the large influx of American immigrants, the non-Hispanic outnumbered native Spanish speakers in Texas. President Vicente Guerrero , a hero of Mexican independence, moved to gain more control over Texas and its influx of non-Hispanic colonists from the southern U.S. and discourage further immigration by abolishing slavery in Mexico. The Mexican government also decided to reinstate
4953-528: The Nueces River, ready to take by force the disputed land. At the same time, President Polk wrote to the American consul in the Mexican territory of Alta California, disclaiming American ambitions in California but offering to support independence from Mexico or voluntary accession to the United States, and warning that the United States would oppose any European attempts to take over. To end another war scare with
5080-831: The Pinto Basin in the 1930s, suggest that they hunted game and gathered seasonal plants, but little else is known about them. Later residents included the Serrano , the Cahuilla , and the Chemehuevi peoples. All three lived at times in small villages in or near water, particularly the Oasis of Mara in what non-aboriginals later called Twentynine Palms . They subsisted largely on plant foods supplemented by small game, amphibians , and reptiles while using other plants for making medicines, bows, arrows, baskets, and other articles of daily life. A fourth group,
5207-502: The Pinto Fault along the northern edge of the park. The red-spotted toad , Bufo punctatus , is a true denizen of the desert, where it spends most of its life underground. Found from one end of the park to the other, it appears after good, soaking rains. Golden eagles hunt in the park regularly. The roadrunner is an easily recognized resident. The call of Gambel's quail can frequently be heard. The tarantula Aphonopelma iodium ,
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5334-535: The Regular Army officers looked down on the volunteers, whose training was poor and whose behavior was undisciplined. (see below) On the West Coast, the U.S. Navy fielded a battalion of sailors, in an attempt to recapture Los Angeles . Although the U.S. Army and Navy were not large at the outbreak of the war, the officers were generally well trained and the numbers of enlisted men fairly large compared to Mexico's. At
5461-527: The Republic of Texas and the U.S. asserting it to be the Rio Grande and Mexico claiming it to be the more-northern Nueces River . Polk sent a diplomatic mission to Mexico in an attempt to buy the disputed territory, together with California and everything in between for $ 25 million (equivalent to $ 778 million in 2023), an offer the Mexican government refused. Polk then sent a group of 80 soldiers across
5588-449: The Rio Grande boundary of Texas was omitted from the U.S. Congress's annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate. President Polk claimed the Rio Grande boundary, and when Mexico sent forces over the Rio Grande, this provoked a dispute. In July 1845, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October, Taylor commanded 3,500 Americans on
5715-539: The San Andreas Fault, the Santa Rosa Mountains , and the city of Palm Springs . Nature walks inside the park include: Longer trails include: Due to graffiti on at least 17 sites on trails, officials have closed them to the public. The closed sites include Native American sites, Rattlesnake Canyon, and Barker Dam . They blame the increase in vandalism on the increased use of social media . The park
5842-655: The Schwarzenegger Wall, Zombie Woof Rock, the Maverick Boulder formation, Pictograph Boulder, Shindig, Lonely Stones Area #3, and the Shipwreck formation, Indian Wave Boulders (except for Native Arete), and Wormholes. As of March 14, 2018 , seasonal closures include the Slatanic Area, Towers of Uncertainty, Patagonia Pile, and Jerry's Quarry. The total visitors more than doubled from 2013 to 2019. Awareness of
5969-786: The Texians in the Battle of the Alamo , he was defeated by the Texian Army commanded by General Sam Houston and was captured at the Battle of San Jacinto . In exchange for his life Santa Anna signed a treaty with Texas President David Burnet ending the war and recognizing Texian independence. The treaty was not ratified by the Mexican Congress as it had been signed by a captive under duress. Although Mexico refused to recognize Texian independence, Texas consolidated its status as an independent republic and received official recognition from Britain, France, and
6096-513: The Treaties of Velasco made after Texans captured General Santa Ana after the Battle of San Jacinto, the southern border of Texas was placed at the "Rio Grande del Norte." The Texans claimed this placed the southern border at the modern Rio Grande . The Mexican government disputed this placement on two grounds: first, it rejected the idea of Texas independence; and second, it claimed that the Rio Grande in
6223-603: The U.S. Some of the boundary issues between the U.S. and Spain were resolved with the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1818. U.S. negotiator John Quincy Adams wanted clear possession of East Florida and establishment of U.S. claims above the 42nd parallel, while Spain sought to limit U.S. expansion into what is now the American Southwest . The U.S. sought to purchase territory from Mexico, starting in 1825, in order to settle some of these issues. U.S. President Andrew Jackson made
6350-458: The U.S. to settle debts, saying: "As to Texas, I regard it as of very little value compared with California, the richest, the most beautiful, and the healthiest country in the world ... with the acquisition of Upper California we should have the same ascendency on the Pacific ;... France and England both have had their eyes upon it." U.S. President John Tyler 's administration suggested
6477-568: The U.S., they were largely contained by the framework of the constitution and did not result in revolution or rebellion by 1846, but rather by sectional political conflicts. Northerners in the U.S. sought to develop the country's existing resources and expand the industrial sector without expanding the nation's territory. The existing balance of sectional interests would be disrupted by the expansion of slavery into new territory. The Democratic Party , to which President Polk belonged, in particular strongly supported expansion. Neither colonial Mexico nor
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#17328545758646604-720: The United Kingdom over the Oregon Country , Polk signed the Oregon Treaty dividing the territory, angering Northern Democrats who felt he was prioritizing Southern expansion over Northern expansion. In the winter of 1845–46, the federally commissioned explorer John C. Frémont and a group of armed men appeared in Alta California. After telling both the Mexican governor and the American Consul Thomas O. Larkin that he
6731-625: The United States as the Mexican War , and in Mexico as the United States intervention in Mexico , was an invasion of Mexico by the United States Army from 1846 to 1848. It followed the 1845 American annexation of Texas , which Mexico still considered its territory because it refused to recognize the Treaties of Velasco , signed by President Antonio López de Santa Anna after he was captured by
6858-488: The United States defeated Mexico in the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and took over about half of Mexico's original territory, including California and the future parkland. In 1870, white settlers began grazing cattle on the tall grasses that grew in the park. In 1888, a gang of cattle rustlers moved into the region near the Oasis of Mara. Led by brothers James B. and William S. McHaney, they hid stolen cattle in
6985-427: The United States, which all advised Mexico not to try to reconquer the new nation. Most Texians wanted to join the United States, but the annexation of Texas was contentious in the U.S. Congress, where Whigs and Abolitionists were largely opposed. In 1845, Texas agreed to the offer of annexation by the U.S. Congress and became the 28th state on December 29, 1845, which set the stage for the conflict with Mexico. By
7112-453: The World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony ... by all means desirable ... that California, once ceasing to belong to Mexico, should not fall into the hands of any power but England ... there is some reason to believe that daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction." By the time
7239-417: The annual temperature has increased by 3 °F. Because of the hotter and drier conditions, there are more wildfires in the park. The park's oldest rocks, Pinto Gneiss among them, are 1.7 billion years old. They are exposed in places on the park's surface in the Cottonwood , Pinto , and Eagle Mountains. Much later, from 250 to 75 million years ago, tectonic plate movements forced volcanic material toward
7366-509: The area and to gain a port on the Pacific Ocean. Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $ 3 million owed to U.S. citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence and pay another $ 25 to $ 30 million for the two territories. Mexico was neither inclined nor able to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times. Despite that, Mexican public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling
7493-486: The army did their best to train the rough men who volunteered, but they could do little to inspire them with patriotism for the glorious country they were honored to serve." According to the leading Mexican conservative politician, Lucas Alamán , the "money spent on arming Mexican troops merely enabled them to fight each other and 'give the illusion' that the country possessed an army for its defense." However, an officer criticized Santa Anna's training of troops, "The cavalry
7620-408: The balance of power between Northern free states and Southern slave states. In the 1844 United States presidential election , Democrat James K. Polk was elected on a platform of expanding U.S. territory to Oregon , California (also a Mexican territory), and Texas by any means, with the 1845 annexation of Texas furthering that goal. However, the boundary between Texas and Mexico was disputed, with
7747-556: The battlefield, negotiating peace was a politically fraught issue. Some Mexican factions refused to consider any recognition of its loss of territory. Although Polk formally relieved his peace envoy, Nicholas Trist , of his post as negotiator, Trist ignored the order and successfully concluded the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . It ended the war, and Mexico recognized the cession of present-day Texas, California, Nevada, and Utah as well as parts of present-day Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming. The U.S. agreed to pay $ 15 million for
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#17328545758647874-438: The battles of Palo Alto and Resaca-de-la-Palma, General Taylor had a small army, but it was composed exclusively of regular troops, under the best of drill and discipline. Every officer, from the highest to the lowest, was educated in his profession, not at West Point necessarily, but in the camp, in garrison, and many of them in wars with Natives. The rank and file were probably inferior, as material out of which to make an army, to
8001-468: The beginning of the war, Mexican forces were divided between the permanent forces ( permanentes ) and the active militiamen ( activos ). The permanent forces consisted of 12 regiments of infantry (of two battalions each), three brigades of artillery, eight regiments of cavalry, one separate squadron and a brigade of dragoons. The militia amounted to nine infantry and six cavalry regiments. In the northern territories, presidial companies ( presidiales ) protected
8128-550: The beginning of the war, the U.S. Army had eight regiments of infantry (three battalions each), four artillery regiments and three mounted regiments (two dragoons, one of mounted rifles). These regiments were supplemented by 10 new regiments (nine of infantry and one of cavalry) raised for one year of service by the act of Congress from February 11, 1847. A large portion of this fighting force consisted of recent immigrants. According to Tyler V. Johnson, foreign-born men amounted to 47 percent of General Taylor's total forces. In addition to
8255-481: The capital to sort out the political mess. Santa Anna briefly held the presidency again, from March 21, 1847 – April 2, 1847. His troops were deprived of support that would allow them to continue the fight. The conservatives demanded the removal of Gómez Farías, and this was accomplished by abolishing the office of vice president. Santa Anna returned to the field, replaced in the presidency by Pedro María de Anaya (April 2 – May 20, 1847). Santa Anna returned to
8382-406: The casualties, monetary cost, and heavy-handedness. The question of how to treat the new acquisitions intensified the debate over slavery in the United States. Although the Wilmot Proviso that explicitly forbade the extension of slavery into conquered Mexican territory was not adopted by Congress, debates about it heightened sectional tensions. Some scholars see the Mexican–American War as leading to
8509-409: The centralist government of Mexico showed its political weakness as the government changed hands multiple times. The Mexican military and the Catholic Church in Mexico , both privileged institutions with conservative political views, were stronger politically than the Mexican state. The United States' 1803 Louisiana Purchase resulted in an undefined border between Spanish colonial territories and
8636-435: The climate was wetter until the 1930s, with the same hot and dry conditions that provoked the Dust Bowl affecting the local climate. These cycles were nothing new, but the original vegetation did not prosper when wetter cycles returned. The difference may have been human development. Cattle grazing took out some of the natural covers and made it less resistant to the changes. There are fewer Joshua tree seedlings surviving in
8763-450: The country to acquire livestock for their own use and to supply an expanding market in Texas and the U.S. The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled because of its challenging climate and topography. Mostly high desert with scarce rainfall, it supported little sedentary agriculture during the pre-Hispanic and colonial periods. After independence, Mexico became preoccupied with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war, and
8890-547: The day and not cooling much below 75 °F (24 °C) until the early hours of the morning. Joshua trees dominate the open spaces of the park, but in among the rock outcroppings are piñon pine , California juniper ( Juniperus californica ), Quercus turbinella (desert scrub oak), Quercus john-tuckeri (Tucker's oak), Quercus cornelius-mulleri (Muller's oak), Cylindropuntia chuckwallensis (chuckwalla cholla), and Opuntia chlorotica (dollarjoint pricklypear). These communities are under some stress, however, as
9017-454: The day. In his 1885 memoirs, former U.S. President Ulysses Grant , a veteran of the Mexican war, attributed Mexico's defeat to the poor quality of their army, writing: "The Mexican army of that day was hardly an organization. The private soldier was picked from the lower class of the inhabitants when wanted; his consent was not asked; he was poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid. He was turned adrift when no longer wanted. The officers of
9144-425: The defense of Mexico City and Monterrey. Some women such as Doña Jesús Dosamantes and María Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes. On the other hand, some Mexican women were seen as "angels" as they provided aid and comfort to the injured men on both sides. Although soldaderas were able to prove the abilities Mexican women had outside of the private sphere, Mexican women on the home front still contributed to
9271-499: The depredations of Micheltorena's army. Former Governor Alvarado organized a revolt in 1845, which culminated in the Battle of Providencia in Cahuenga Pass near Los Angeles. As a result of the actions of pioneer California rancher John Marsh , Micheltorena's forces were defeated. In 1800, Spain's colonial province of Texas (Tejas) had few inhabitants, with only about 7,000 non-native settlers. The Spanish crown developed
9398-490: The disputed territory to the Rio Grande, ignoring Mexican demands to withdraw. Mexican forces interpreted this as an attack and repelled the U.S. forces on April 25, 1846, a move which Polk used to convince the Congress of the United States to declare war. Beyond the disputed area of Texas, U.S. forces quickly occupied the regional capital of Santa Fe de Nuevo México along the upper Rio Grande. U.S. forces also moved against
9525-566: The federal system, replacing it with a unitary central government that removed power from the states. Leaving politics to those in Mexico City, General Santa Anna led the Mexican army to quash the semi-independence of Texas. He had done that in Coahuila (in 1824, Mexico had merged Texas and Coahuila into the enormous state of Coahuila y Tejas ). Austin called Texians to arms and they declared independence from Mexico in 1836. After Santa Anna defeated
9652-502: The government shutdown. Park botanists subsequently determined that one of three Joshua trees reported to have been cut down or damaged during the shutdown had been felled prior to the shutdown. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service . Mexican%E2%80%93American War Mexican Cession The Mexican–American War , also known in
9779-439: The heat underground. Desert mammals make more efficient use of their bodies’ water supply than the human body. Reptiles are physiologically adapted to getting along with little water, and birds can fly to water sources when they need to drink. Nevertheless, the springs and seeps in the park are necessary for the survival of many animals. Most reptiles and many small rodents and insects go into an inactive state of hibernation during
9906-633: The higher elevations of the western side of the park. The higher and cooler Mojave Desert is the special habitat of Yucca brevifolia , the Joshua tree for which the park is named. It occurs in patterns from dense forests to distantly spaced specimens. In addition to Joshua tree forests, the western part of the park includes some of the most interesting geologic displays found in California's deserts. The dominant geologic features of this landscape are hills of bare rock, usually broken up into loose boulders. These hills are popular among rock climbing and scrambling enthusiasts. The flatland between these hills
10033-472: The letter reached London, though, Sir Robert Peel 's Tory government, with its Little England policy, had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict. Pío Pico , the last governor of Alta California, advocated that California achieve independence from Mexico and become a British protectorate . In 1842, Mexico forcibly replaced California Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado with Manuel Micheltorena . Micheltorena
10160-484: The lower grades were but little superior to the men. With all this I have seen as brave stands made by some of these men as I have ever seen made by soldiers. Now Mexico has a standing army larger than the United States. They have a military school modeled after West Point. Their officers are educated and, no doubt, very brave. The Mexican war of 1846–48 would be an impossibility in this generation." There were significant political divisions in Mexico which seriously impeded
10287-448: The mouths of canyons, and bajadas , where the alluvial fans overlapped. The rock formations of Joshua Tree National Park owe their shape partly to groundwater , which filtered through the roughly rectangular joints of the monzonite and eroded the corners and edges of blocks of stone, and to flash floods , which washed away covering ground and left piles of rounded boulders. These prominent outcrops are known as inselbergs . Of
10414-456: The national park service which is more than any other similar organization. According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation types, Joshua Tree National Park has two categories, a creosote bush potential vegetation type with a desert shrubland potential vegetation form in most of the area, and a juniper / pinyon pine potential vegetation type with a Great Basin montane forest /southwest forest potential vegetation form on
10541-447: The newly sovereign Mexican state effectively controlled Mexico's far north and west. Mexico's military and diplomatic capabilities declined after it attained independence from Spain in 1821 and left the northern half of the country vulnerable to attacks by Comanche , Apache , and Navajo Native Americans. The Comanche, in particular, took advantage of the weakness of the Mexican state to undertake large-scale raids hundreds of miles into
10668-652: The outbreak of the war, New Mexico was economically dependent on trade with the United States via the eastern branch of the Santa Fe Trail . The Mexican government's policy of allowing the settlement of U.S. citizens in its province of Tejas was aimed at expanding control into Comanche lands, the Comancheria . However, rather than settling in the dangerous central and western parts of the province, Anglos preferred to settle in East Texas with its rich farmland contiguous with
10795-571: The park expanded by 4,518 acres (7.1 sq mi; 18.3 km ) under a provision included in the John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act. The Mojave Desert Land Trust (MDLT) has conserved 10,290 acres (4,160 ha) within the park. These inholdings were private ownership within the national park that they were able to purchase. They also acquire private properties bordering federally protected properties. MDLT has sold 25,801 acres (10,441 ha) of acquired private property to
10922-555: The park includes parts of two deserts, each an ecosystem whose characteristics are determined primarily by elevation: the higher Mojave Desert and the lower Colorado Desert . The Little San Bernardino Mountains traverse the southwest edge of the park. The earliest known residents of the land in and around what later became Joshua Tree National Park were the people of the Pinto Culture, who lived and hunted here between 8000 and 4000 BCE. Their stone tools and spear points, discovered in
11049-596: The park lies along an inland stretch of the Pacific Flyway . Other species descend from their usual habitats in the mountains to escape winter snow. Birdwatching spots include fan palm oases , the Barker Dam, and Smith Water Canyon. Queen Valley and Lost Horse Valley also provide good birdwatching, with a different range of species due to the lack of water, including the ladder-backed woodpecker and oak titmouse . A USGS bird checklist from 2006 contained 239 species in
11176-728: The park's six blocks of mountains, five—the Little San Bernardino , Hexie , Pinto, Cottonwood, and Eagle—are among the Transverse Ranges , which trend generally east–west in locations between the Eagle Mountains on the east and the northern Channel Islands , in the Pacific Ocean west of Santa Barbara , on the west. Tectonic forces along the San Andreas Fault system compressed and lifted the crust material that formed these ranges. The San Andreas Fault itself passes southwest of
11303-596: The park, but related parallel faults, including the Dillon, Blue Cut, and Pinto, run through the park, and movements along them have caused earthquakes. The easternmost range in the park, the Coxcomb Mountains, runs generally north–south and is part of the Basin and Range Province . Nine established campgrounds exist in the park, two of which (Black Rock Campground and Cottonwood Campground) provide water and flush toilets. A fee
11430-489: The park. Joshua Tree is a popular observing site in Southern California for amateur astronomy and stargazing, along with nearby Anza-Borrego Desert State Park . The park's elevation and dry desert air, along with the relatively stable atmosphere in the region, often make for excellent seeing conditions. The park is well known for its naturally dark night skies , which are far away from and largely free of
11557-538: The park. It is forecasted that by 2099, under the high emission scenario, the park will increase in temperature by 8 °F. This would make most of the national park unsuitable for Joshua tree growth. Under the low emission scenario, 80% of suitable Joshua tree habitat could be lost. The desert tortoise population has decreased due to habitat loss and climate change. Lizards in the park are also at risk. Bird species have declined 43% according to studies conducted in 1908–1968 and 2013–2016. Below 3,000 feet (910 m),
11684-405: The physical damage of the war and assumed $ 3.25 million of debt already owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico relinquished its claims on Texas and accepted the Rio Grande as its northern border with the United States. The victory and territorial expansion Polk envisioned inspired patriotism among some sections of the United States, but the war and treaty drew fierce criticism for
11811-466: The presidency on May 20, 1847, when Anaya left to fight the invasion, serving until September 15, 1847. Preferring the battlefield to administration, Santa Anna left office again, leaving the office to Manuel de la Peña y Peña (September 16 – November 13, 1847). With U.S. forces occupying the Mexican capital and much of the heartland, negotiating a peace treaty was an exigent matter, and Peña y Peña left office to do that. Pedro María Anaya returned to
11938-514: The presidency on November 13, 1847 – January 8, 1848. Anaya refused to sign any treaty that ceded land to the U.S., despite the situation on the ground with Americans occupying the capital. Peña y Peña resumed the presidency January 8, 1848 – June 3, 1848, during which time the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, bringing the war to an end. Polk had pledged to seek expanded territory in Oregon and Texas, as part of his campaign in 1844 , but
12065-460: The presidency to fight the invading U.S. Army and was replaced by his vice president Nicolás Bravo (July 28, 1846 – August 4, 1846). The conservative Bravo was overthrown by federalist liberals who re-established the federal Constitution of 1824 . José Mariano Salas (August 6, 1846 – December 23, 1846) served as president and held elections under the restored federalist system. General Antonio López de Santa Anna won those elections, but as
12192-460: The property tax and increase tariffs on shipped American goods. The settlers and many Mexican businessmen in the region rejected the demands, which led to Mexico closing Texas to additional immigration, which continued from the United States into Texas illegally. In 1834, Mexican conservatives seized the political initiative, and General Antonio López de Santa Anna became the centralist president of Mexico. The conservative-dominated Congress abandoned
12319-509: The province of Alta California and then turned south. The Pacific Squadron of the U.S. Navy blockaded the Pacific coast in the lower Baja California Territory . The U.S. Army, under Major General Winfield Scott , invaded the Mexican heartland via an amphibious landing at the port of Veracruz on March 9 and captured the capital, Mexico City , in September 1847. Although Mexico was defeated on
12446-544: The raids of American forces. The Mexican army was using surplus British muskets (such as the Brown Bess ), left over from the Napoleonic Wars . While at the beginning of the war most American soldiers were still equipped with the very similar Springfield 1816 flintlock muskets, more reliable caplock models became increasingly popular as the conflict progressed. Some U.S. troops carried more modern weapons that gave them
12573-411: The ranching industry that was a mainstay of the northern economy. As a result, the demoralized civilian population of northern Mexico put up little resistance to the invading U.S. army. Furthermore, distance and hostile activity by Native Americans made communications and trade between the heartland of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico increasingly difficult. As a result, at
12700-408: The region's geology. More than 250 bird species inhabit or visit the park, including resident desert birds such as the greater roadrunner , cactus wren , northern mockingbird , LeConte's thrasher , verdin , and Gambel's quail . About 78 species nest and raise their young within the park. Many migrating species spend only a short time feeding and resting at Joshua Tree, mainly in the winter, as
12827-500: The regular army was not sufficiently large to sustain extended conflicts on two fronts. The Oregon dispute with Britain was settled peaceably by treaty, allowing U.S. forces to concentrate on the southern border. The war was fought by regiments of regulars bolstered by various regiments, battalions, and companies of volunteers from the different states of the Union, as well as Americans and some Mexicans in California and New Mexico. In general,
12954-525: The scattered settlements. Indigenous populations in Mexico played a crucial role in the defending their land. By the beginning of the war, indigenous populations were depleted of their natural resources due to an influx of American settlers . As a result, indigenous populations from the Great Plains region had to rely on raiding American camps in order to survive. Although raiding was much more lucrative than hunting, indigenous population did not have much of
13081-669: The southern U.S. slave states . As settlers poured in from the U.S., the Mexican government discouraged further migration with its 1829 abolition of slavery. During the Spanish colonial era, the Californias (i.e., the Baja California peninsula and Alta California) were sparsely settled. After Mexico became independent, it shut down the missions and reduced its military presence. In 1842, the U.S. minister in Mexico, Waddy Thompson Jr. , suggested Mexico might be willing to cede Alta California to
13208-588: The steady trend of migration from the United States into the Texas frontier. Austin's colony was the most successful of several colonies authorized by the Mexican government. The Mexican government intended the new settlers to act as a buffer between the Tejano residents and the Comanches, but the non-Hispanic colonists tended to settle in areas with decent farmland and trade connections with Louisiana rather than farther west where they would have been an effective buffer against
13335-518: The surface at this location and formed granites, including monzogranite common to the Wonderland of Rocks, parts of the Pinto, Eagle, and Coxcomb Mountains, and elsewhere. Erosion eventually exposed the harder rocks, gneiss, and granite, in the uplands and reduced the softer rocks to debris that filled the canyons and basins between the ranges. The debris, moved by gravity and water, formed alluvial fans at
13462-432: The territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor. Mexicans who opposed direct conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera , were viewed as traitors. Military opponents of de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell's presence in Mexico City an insult. When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell to settle the problem of Texas annexation peacefully, he
13589-630: The town in the streets." Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines's army" came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops was rejected and sent back by General Taylor at the beginning of the war. In his 1885 memoirs, Ulysses Grant assesses the U.S. armed forces facing Mexico more favorably. The victories in Mexico were, in every instance, over vastly superior numbers. There were two reasons for this. Both General Scott and General Taylor had such armies as are not often got together. At
13716-475: The treaty was actually the Nueces River , since the current Rio Grande has always been called "Rio Bravo" in Mexico. The latter claim belied the full name of the river in Mexico, however: "Rio Bravo del Norte." The ill-fated Texan Santa Fe Expedition of 1841 attempted to realize the claim to New Mexican territory east of the Rio Grande, but its members were captured by the Mexican Army and imprisoned. Reference to
13843-456: The trees that would have otherwise survived. When the area regenerates, these non-native grasses form a thick layer of turf that makes getting a roothold harder for the pine and oak seedlings. Fountain grass was introduced to the park in the 1990s. This grass competes with native grasses for water and nutrients. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Joshua Tree National Park has
13970-437: The use of a camp stove (since open campfires are prohibited) and employing Leave No Trace camping techniques (also known as "pack it in, pack it out"). Although bicycles are not allowed in wilderness areas, horses are, but a permit must be obtained in advance for travel in the backcountry. Cellular signals are weak to non-existent and should not be depended on while visiting the park. On April 1, 2015, graffiti artist André
14097-537: The volunteers that participated in all the later battles of the war; but they were brave men, and then drill and discipline brought out all there was in them. A better army, man for man, probably never faced an enemy than the one commanded by General Taylor in the earliest two engagements of the Mexican war. The volunteers who followed were of better material, but without drill or discipline at the start. They were associated with so many disciplined men and professionally educated officers, that when they went into engagements it
14224-433: The war effort. Inside Mexico, the conservative centralistas and liberal federalists vied for power, and at times these two factions inside Mexico's military fought each other rather than the invading U.S. Army. Santa Anna bitterly remarked, "However shameful it may be to admit this, we have brought this disgraceful tragedy upon ourselves through our interminable in-fighting." During the conflict, presidents held office for
14351-597: The war effort. After having to face the losses in their country, Mexican women were seen dressed in black and creating somber paintings. American and Mexican women shared the similarities of providing their domestic services on the battlefield. Among the most notable American women on the battlefield was Sarah Bowman . She was often seen delivering food, carrying wounded soldiers, and in close combat. In Mexico While their husbands enlisted, many American women stayed in Mexico to tend to oversee their business, making themselves factory women. However, factory woman Ann Chase
14478-526: The western regions near Palm Springs . In the easternmost regions of the park, visitors with optimal vision can expect to see the Andromeda (M31) and Triangulum (M33) galaxies with unaided eyes. The central Milky Way appears highly structured to the naked eye from this site, and zodiacal light appears as a faint yellowish glow when visible. In the western regions of the park, the Andromeda Galaxy
14605-485: The wildflower bloom in the spring has brought increased visitation. The paved main road allows visitors to drive to major attractions and through the park. The unpaved roads may require a vehicle with high ground clearance , and four-wheel drive . An example is the Geology Tour Road in the center of the park. Visitors with a four-wheel-drive vehicle can use this road for a self-guided tour with stops that describe
14732-584: The winter. However, winter is the time of greatest bird concentrations in the park, because of the presence of many migrant species. Of the park's total land area of 790,636 acres (1,235.4 sq mi; 3,199.6 km ), 429,690 acres (671.4 sq mi; 1,738.9 km ) are designated wilderness and managed by the National Park Service (NPS) in accordance with the Wilderness Act . The NPS requires registration for overnight camping at specific locations called registration boards. Other requirements include
14859-507: The worsening situation on the northern frontier was largely neglected. In northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for garrisoned presidios and the pay-offs to Native Americans to maintain peace. In the absence of effective governance, Comanche and Apache took to raiding for livestock and looted much of the northern countryside outside of the scattered towns. The raids after 1821 resulted in many deaths, halted most transportation and communications, and decimated
14986-454: Was accused of treason and deposed. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it publicly reaffirmed Mexico's claim to Texas. The Mexican Army was a weak and divided force. Only 7 of the 19 states that formed the Mexican federation sent soldiers, armament, and money for the war effort. Many leaders expressed their concern for the country, including Santa Anna who stated that , "The leaders of
15113-612: Was convicted and fined for vandalizing a boulder in the park. André posted photos of his vandalism on social media. Casey Schreiner , of the hiking blog site Modern Hiker, and some of his readers aided the National Park Service in tracking down and identifying André's vandalism. Before the conviction, André had attempted to silence the reporting with legal threats. During the 2018–2019 federal government shutdown , reports of vandalism spiked as visitors allegedly chopped down Joshua trees, set illegal fires, drove off-road, and spray-painted rocks. Only eight park rangers were on duty during
15240-431: Was doubted by some in the U.S., but they were not counted as deserters. The volunteers were far less disciplined than the regular army, with many committing attacks on the civilian population, sometimes stemming from anti-Catholic and anti-Mexican racial bias. Soldiers' memoirs describe cases of looting and murder of Mexican civilians, mostly by volunteers. One officer's diary records: "We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of
15367-464: Was drilled only in regiments. The artillery hardly ever maneuvered and never fired a blank shot. The general in command was never present on the field of maneuvers, so that he was unable to appreciate the respective qualities of the various bodies under his command ... If any meetings of the principal commanding officers were held to discuss the operations of the campaign, it was not known, nor was it known whether any plan of campaign had been formed." At
15494-615: Was his practice, he left the administration to his vice president, who was again liberal Valentín Gómez Farías (December 23, 1846 – March 21, 1847). In February 1847, conservatives rebelled against the liberal government's attempt to take Church property to fund the war effort. In the Revolt of the Polkos , the Catholic Church and conservatives paid soldiers to rise against the liberal government. Santa Anna had to leave his campaign to return to
15621-599: Was merely buying supplies on the way to Oregon, he instead went to the populated area of California and visited Santa Cruz and the Salinas Valley , explaining he had been looking for a seaside home for his mother. Mexican authorities became alarmed and ordered him to leave. Frémont responded by building a fort on Gavilan Peak and raising the American flag. Larkin sent word that Frémont's actions were counterproductive. Frémont left California in March but returned and took control of
15748-494: Was redesignated as a national park in 1994 when the U.S. Congress passed the California Desert Protection Act . Encompassing a total of 795,156 acres (1,242.4 sq mi; 3,217.9 km ) – slightly larger than the state of Rhode Island – the park includes 429,690 acres (671.4 sq mi; 1,738.9 km ) of designated wilderness . Straddling San Bernardino and Riverside Counties,
15875-515: Was sent up from lower Mexico, along with an army, that had largely been recruited from Mexico's worst jails. The Californios resented this, partly because California had previously been governed by native-born Californios, partly because Micheltorena's policies were unpopular, and also because the soldiers in Micheltorena's army got a reputation for spending much of their time stealing the local Californios' chickens. Women were not considered safe from
16002-459: Was willing enough to become a spy for U.S. forces in order to protect her home and business in the absence of her husband. In the U.S. Similarly to the Mexican women were contributed to the war efforts from their homes, women in the U.S. also protested publicly and made patriotic crafts that U.S. soldiers could carry. In addition, female journalists across multiple states took advantage of their literacy to speak up in support or in opposition of
16129-468: Was with a confidence they would not have felt otherwise. They became soldiers themselves almost at once. All these conditions we would enjoy again in case of war. The U.S. had been an independent country since the American Revolution , but it was a country that was strongly divided along sectional lines, especially in regard to slavery. Enlarging the country, particularly through armed combat against
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