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148-543: The Los Angeles Conservancy is a historic preservation organization in Los Angeles, California . It works to document, rescue and revitalize historic buildings , places and neighborhoods in the city. The Conservancy is the largest membership based historic preservation organization in the country. The group was formed in 1978 to preserve Los Angeles Central Library , which was threatened with demolition. The organization has over 7000 members and 400 volunteers. There used to be

296-720: A central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself with a new emphasis on personal piety that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful. Education: Public education was centralised, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the national educational system from Paris. New technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have

444-566: A chief minister, Polignac, in November 1829 who was repellent to the liberals and, worse, Chateaubriand. Though Charles remained nonchalant, the deadlock led some royalists to call for a coup , and prominent liberals for a tax strike. At the opening of the session in March 1830, the King delivered a speech that contained veiled threats to the opposition; in response, 221 deputies (an absolute majority) condemned

592-757: A coalition of European powers defeated him in the War of the Sixth Coalition , ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The First Bourbon Restoration lasted from about 6 April 1814. In July 1815 the First French Empire was succeeded by the Kingdom of France. This Kingdom existed until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. At the peace Congress of Vienna ,

740-711: A considerable uproar, particularly among the Doctrinaires . Much more controversial was the introduction of the Jesuits , who set up a network of colleges for elite youth outside the official university system. The Jesuits were noted for their loyalty to the Pope and gave much less support to Gallican traditions. Inside and outside the Church they had enemies, and the king ended their institutional role in 1828. New legislation paid an indemnity to royalists whose lands had been confiscated during

888-400: A critical role in training the elite. The aristocracy: Conservatism was bitterly split into the returning old aristocracy and the new elites arising under Napoleon after 1796. The old aristocracy was eager to regain its land, but felt no loyalty to the new regime. The newer elite, the " noblesse d'empire ", ridiculed the older group as an outdated remnant of a discredited regime that had led

1036-624: A familiar gentleman's pursuit since the mid 17th century, developing in tandem with the rise in scientific curiosity. Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries . Many historic sites were damaged as the railways began to spread across the UK, these sites included Trinity Hospital and its church in Edinburgh, Furness Abbey , Berwick and Northampton Castle , as well as

1184-513: A first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis' gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him support among the disenfranchised majority. Symbolic acts such as the replacement of the tricolore flag with the white flag , the titling of Louis as the "XVIII" (as successor to Louis XVII , who never ruled) and as "King of France" rather than "King of the French", and

1332-454: A general concept of conservation. "Conservation" is taken as the more general term, referring to all actions or processes that are aimed at safeguarding the character-defining elements of a cultural resource so as to retain its heritage value and extend its physical life. Historic objects in Canada may be granted special designation by any of the three levels of government: the federal government ,

1480-468: A historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some having hundreds of structures while others have just a few. The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the U.S. Department of Interior , under the auspices of the National Park Service . Federally designated historic districts are listed on

1628-613: A historic preservation ordinance. The US National Trust for Historic Preservation , another privately funded non-profit organization , began in 1949 with a handful of structures and has developed goals that provide "leadership, education, advocacy, and resources to save America's diverse historic places and revitalize our communities" according to the Trust's mission statement. In 1951 the Trust assumed responsibility for its first museum property, Woodlawn Plantation in northern Virginia . Twenty-eight sites in all have subsequently become part of

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1776-660: A historic site by a U.S. state, having been so since 1850. Another early historic preservation undertaking was that of George Washington 's Mount Vernon in 1858. Founded in 1889, the Richmond, Virginia-based Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities) was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group. The American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society

1924-550: A local historical register. Refer to the table, below, for the full breakdown of various practice areas in the United States. According to a 2008 survey conducted by the National Heritage Training Group, the size of the built heritage conservation sector, and how its various specializations break down, is not known. In 1790, Aubin-Louis Millin submitted a report to the Constituent Assembly regarding

2072-530: A minimum. The ultras broadened their support, and put a stop to growing military dissent in 1823, when intervention in Spain, in favour of Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII , and against the Liberal Spanish Government , fomented popular patriotic fervour. Despite British backing for the military action, the intervention was widely seen as an attempt to win back influence in Spain, which had been lost to

2220-500: A period where Melbourne became known as " Marvellous Melbourne ", boasting the largest collection of Victorian architecture outside of England. However, in the years that followed, and as the thousands of Australian soldiers arrived back from the battlefields following the end of World War I there emerged a sense of renewed pride and a willingness to forget the dark days of war and distance Australian from its Victorian origins, considered "unfashionable" or "outdated" by some. The Council of

2368-486: A prefect appointed by Paris. The thicket of overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardised legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control. The church: The Revolutionary governments had confiscated all the lands and buildings of the Catholic Church , selling them to innumerable middle-class buyers, and it

2516-538: A relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the ultra-royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought both the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded

2664-531: A revision to the Planning Act (1982) in 1989. Not regulated by the Planning Act, the City of Adelaide endeavoured to create on a similar scheme, which became known as the townscape initiative, facilitating one of the most destructive political debates in the council's history. In Canada , the phrase "heritage preservation" is sometimes seen as a specific approach to the treatment of historic places and sites, rather than

2812-522: A series of bad harvests 1827–1830. Workers living on the margin were very hard-pressed, and angry that the government paid little attention to their urgent needs. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord , and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henry V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies,

2960-409: A similar fashion to the 1816 chamber, and fears over the charbonnerie , the French equivalent of the carbonari . In the 1824 election , another large majority was secured. Louis XVIII died on 16 September 1824 and was succeeded by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, who took the title of Charles X . The accession to the throne of Charles X, the leader of the ultra-royalist faction, coincided with

3108-536: A tourism market that in turn provides funds for maintaining an economic stability that these areas would not have seen otherwise. A similar concept exists in the United Kingdom: a Conservation area is designated in accordance with the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 in order to protect a zone in which there are buildings of architectural or cultural heritage interest. The Department of

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3256-506: A volunteer Modern Committee, dedicated to the preservation of postwar architecture as well as a Historic Theaters Committee that produces the annual "Last Remaining Seats" film series of classic films in the historic movie palaces in downtown Los Angeles . The executive director since 1992 has been Linda Dishman. The Conservancy hosts an annual preservation awards ceremony at the Millennium Biltmore Hotel and works closely with

3404-469: A year in direct taxes. The king was the supreme head of the state. He commanded the land and sea forces, declared war, made treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appointed all public officials, and made the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the state. Louis was relatively liberal, choosing many centrist cabinets. Louis XVIII died in September 1824 and

3552-423: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Historic preservation Paid work, performed by trained professionals, in historic preservation can be divided into the practice areas of regulatory compliance, architecture and construction, historic sites/museums, advocacy, and downtown revitalization/rejuvenation; each of these areas has a different set of expected skills, knowledge, and abilities. In

3700-507: Is a preservation plan. The IDF is working towards maintaining these building as well as communicating their value to the soldiers in these bases. Buildings include Knights Templar sites, old military bases used by the British or German or buildings from the Ottoman period. In North Macedonia , historic preservation falls under the overarching category of cultural heritage preservation according to

3848-553: Is a registered charity that looks after the National Heritage Collection in England. This comprises over 400 of England's historic buildings, monuments and sites spanning more than 5,000 years of history. Within its portfolio are Stonehenge , Dover Castle , Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrian's Wall . Originally English Heritage was the operating name of an executive non-departmental public body of

3996-550: Is the preservation of maritime heritage. Maritime trade was the Dutch specialty which shaped much of their culture and as a country that is 50% under sea level the Dutch history is closely intertwined with water. There are maritime museums in both Amsterdam and Rotterdam that tell the story of the Dutch maritime heritage, but there is not much legal documentation on how to preserve it. For example, according to Sarah Dromgoole, shipwrecks from The Dutch East India Company are found all around

4144-702: The Société des antiquaires de France in 1804 (originally the Académie celtique ), the Société française d'archéologie in 1834, and the Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques also in 1834. In 1819, the Ministry of the Interior provided an allowance for monuments historiques for the first time, and, on 21 October 1830, François Guizot (then Minister of the Interior) proposed

4292-474: The 1905 Law of Separation of Church and State , local communities and the government were entrusted with the care and upkeep of religious buildings, however, this led to refusal to care for buildings not of "national interest" by some and the auctioning off of heritage by others. Per consequence, on 13 December 1913, a law was passed which widened the field of protection for classified monuments, including changing "national interest" to "public interest" and allowing

4440-518: The Aide-toi, which backed liberals, constitutionnels , and the contre-opposition (constitutional monarchists). The new chamber did not result in a clear majority for any side. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac , who began his term in January 1828, tried to steer a middle course, appeasing liberals by loosening press controls, expelling Jesuits, modifying electoral registration, and restricting

4588-555: The Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913 . The new structure involved the creation of the Ancient Monuments Board to oversee the protection of such monuments. Powers were given for the board, with Parliamentary approval, to issue preservation orders to protect monuments, and extended the public right of access to these. The term "monument" was extended to include the lands around it, allowing

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4736-579: The British Government , officially titled the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England , that ran the national system of heritage protection and managed a range of historic properties. It was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. In 1999 the organisation merged with the Royal Commission on

4884-516: The British Mandate of Palestine . However, these laws are not comprehensive and limited in scope: the Antiquities Law only applies itself to buildings or artifacts dated before 1700 BC. So while efforts discovering and protecting anything older than 1700 BC are well protected, anything from later historical periods is not under the protection of this law. The Planning and Building Law discusses

5032-512: The Chamber of Deputies affirmed Louis Phillipe d'Orleans as King of the French, ushering in the July Monarchy . Louis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, Talleyrand , who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon Restoration. The Allies had initially split on the best candidate for

5180-678: The City of Melbourne was no doubt buoyed by this new nationalistic pride and put in place schemes to modernize the city which included increasing the building height limit and removing some of the Victorian era cast ironwork. In the years leading up to World War II the Whelan the Wrecker firm had already pulled down thousands of structures in both the city and surrounding suburbs, as Melbourne became particularly conscious of International Modernism . James Paul Whelan's obituary of 1938 suggests that his company had

5328-535: The French conquest of Algeria ; victory was announced over the Dey of Algiers in early July. Plans were drawn up to invade Belgium, which was shortly to undergo its own revolution . However, foreign policy did not prove sufficient to divert attention from domestic problems. Charles's dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, his July Ordinances which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in

5476-514: The House of Bourbon returned to power after the fall of Napoleon in 1815. The Second Bourbon Restoration lasted until the July Revolution of 26 July 1830. Louis XVIII and Charles X , brothers of the executed King Louis XVI , successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all the institutions, of the Ancien régime . Exiled supporters of

5624-425: The July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of the regime's downfall, however, was that, while it managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, the ultras' cause was deeply unpopular outside of parliament and with those who did not hold the franchise, especially the industrial workers and the bourgeoisie. A major reason was a sharp rise in food prices , caused by

5772-528: The National Heritage List for England , which is maintained by Historic England. Victor de Stuers is widely considered the man who started historic preservation in the Netherlands. In 1875 the first national department for conservation was established and de Stuers was appointed as the first legal secretary at the Ministry of Home Affairs as chief of the brand new Department of Arts and Sciences. He

5920-718: The Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel but in 2008 registers as an independent non-profit. Today, it is the organization responsible for the most historical preservation endeavors as well as efforts to add amendments to existing laws to provide a comprehensive and effective framework for preservation in Israel. A different, separate effort in preservation comes from the Israeli Defense Force (IDF). The IDF surveyed 94 military bases and found that about 80 of them include sites worth preserving, and for each of these bases there

6068-642: The Société des amis de la liberté de la presse ; Choiseul-Stainville , Salvandy and Villemain were among the contributors. Another influential society was the Société Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera , which worked within the confines of legislation banning the unauthorized meetings of more than 20 members. The group, emboldened by the rising tide of opposition, was of a more liberal composition (associated with Le Globe ) and included members such as Guizot , Rémusat , and Barrot . Pamphlets were sent out which evaded

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6216-610: The United States , about 70% of professional, paid practice in historic preservation is in the area of regulatory compliance, which is driven by laws, regulations, and guidelines promulgated at the federal, state, and local levels. At the federal level, these include the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and associated regulations, such as Section 106 (54 USC 306108, formerly known as 36 CFR 800), National Register of Historic Places (54 USC 302101–302108), and

6364-472: The duc de Reichstadt , remained interned in Austrian hands. Literary figures, most notably Chateaubriand , but also Hugo , Lamartine , Vigny , and Nodier , rallied to the ultras' cause. Both Hugo and Lamartine later became republicans, whilst Nodier was formerly. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to

6512-457: The provincial government , or a municipal government . The Heritage Canada Foundation acts as Canada's lead advocacy organization for heritage buildings and landscapes. In Israel, there are currently two laws concerning historic preservation, Antiquities Law of the State of Israel (1978) and Planning and Building Law (1965). Both laws were adapted from the British law that was implemented during

6660-848: The 1970s and the Australian Heritage Commission (AHS), was established by the Federal Government in 1975 by the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975 as the first body to manage natural and cultural heritage in Australia until its demise in 2004. It was responsible for the Register of the National Estate . The Australian National Heritage List was established in 2003. Controversy arose in 2016 in Melbourne after

6808-602: The Army and foreign affairs. In April 1814, the Armies of the Sixth Coalition restored Louis XVIII of France to the throne, the brother and heir of the executed Louis XVI. A constitution was drafted: the Charter of 1814 . It presented all Frenchmen as equal before the law, but retained substantial prerogatives for the king and nobility and limited voting to those paying at least 300 Francs

6956-662: The Aurora Hotel in Hindmarsh Square , which had been recommended for listing on the city heritage register but refused because the site was to be redeveloped. The protest led to the emergence of Aurora Heritage Action, Inc. (AHA), which became the most vocal heritage lobby group in Adelaide during the decade, often working in cooperation with residents' associations and later the National Trust. While governments were urged to protect

7104-409: The Battle of Berkhamsted Common. In 1870, Sir Robert Hunter (later co-founder of the National Trust in 1895) and the Commons Preservation Society succeed in legal action that ensured protection of Berkhamsted Common and other open spaces threatened with enclosure. In 1926 the common was acquired by the National Trust. By the mid 19th century, much of Britain's unprotected cultural heritage

7252-404: The Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. Administration: First, France was now highly centralised, with all important decisions made in Paris. The political geography was completely reorganised and made uniform, dividing the nation into more than 80 départements which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by

7400-415: The Bourbons were treated politely by the victorious monarchies, but had to give up nearly all the territorial gains made by revolutionary and Napoleonic France since 1789. Unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime , the Restoration Bourbon regime was a constitutional monarchy , with some limits on its power. The new king, Louis XVIII, accepted the vast majority of reforms instituted from 1792 to 1814. Continuity

7548-436: The British under Napoleon. The French expeditionary army, called the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis , was led by the duc d'Angoulême , the comte d'Artois's son. The French troops marched to Madrid and then to Cádiz , ousting the Liberals with little fighting (April to September 1823), and would remain in Spain for five years. Support for the ultras amongst the voting rich was further strengthened by doling out favours in

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7696-404: The Catholic monopoly of public primary education. Decazes purged a number of ultra-royalist prefects and sub-prefects, and in by-elections, an unusually high proportion of Bonapartists and republicans were elected, some of whom were backed by ultras resorting to tactical voting . The ultras were strongly critical of the practice of giving civil service employment or promotions to deputies, as

7844-407: The Guard was disbanded. Pamphlets continued to proliferate, which included accusations in September that Charles, on a trip to Saint-Omer , was colluding with the Pope and planned to reinstate the tithe, and had suspended the Charter under the protection of a loyal garrison army. By the time of the election, the moderate royalists (constitutionalists) were also beginning to turn against Charles, as

7992-407: The Historical Monuments of England and the National Monuments Record (England), bringing together resources for the identification and survey of England's historic environment. On 1 April 2015, English Heritage was divided into two parts: Historic England , which inherited the statutory and protection functions of the old organisation, and the new English Heritage Trust , a charity that would operate

8140-422: The Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the beginning of the Second White Terror , largely in the south, when unofficial groups supporting the monarchy sought revenge against those who had aided Napoleon's return: about 200–300 were killed, while thousands fled. About 70,000 government officials were dismissed. The pro-Bourbon perpetrators were often known as the Verdets because of their green cockets, which

8288-432: The Interior designated several areas of Morristown, New Jersey as the first historic park in the United States national park system. It became designated as the Morristown National Historical Park . The community had permanent settlements that date to 1715, is termed the military capital of the American Revolution, and contains many designations of sites and locations. The park includes three major sites in Morristown. In

8436-452: The Law on Protection of Cultural Heritage (Закон за заштита на културното наследство). According to this law, which the Macedonian Parliament approved in March 2004, there are three types of cultural heritage: immovable, movable, and intangible. Historical preservation is represented by the protection of monuments and monumental entireties under immovable cultural heritage, and historical items under movable cultural heritage. Although this law

8584-418: The National Register of Historic Places. Historic districts allows rural areas to preserve their characters through historic preservation programs. These include "Main Street" programs that can be used to redevelop rural downtowns. Using historic preservation programs as an economic development tool for local governments in rural areas has enabled some of those areas to take advantage of their history and develop

8732-402: The National Trust, representing the cultural diversity of American history. In New York City, the destruction of Pennsylvania Station in 1964 shocked many nationwide into supporting preservation. The 1960s proved advantageous with new laws and international agreements extending preservation "from ancient monuments to whole districts and buildings a few decades old." On an international level,

8880-482: The New York-based World Monuments Fund was founded in 1965 to preserve historic sites all over the world. Under the direction of James Marston Fitch , the first advanced-degree historic preservation program began at Columbia University in 1964. It became the model on which most other graduate historic preservation programs were created. Many other programs were to follow before 1980: M.A. in Preservation Planning from Cornell (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation from

9028-464: The Restoration was in doubt, but the allure of peace to a war-weary French public, and demonstrations of support for the Bourbons in Paris, Bordeaux , Marseille , and Lyon , helped reassure the Allies. Louis, in accordance with the Declaration of Saint-Ouen , granted a written constitution, the Charter of 1814 , which guaranteed a bicameral legislature with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies – their role

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9176-457: The Revolution. Although this law had been engineered by Louis, Charles was influential in seeing that it was passed. A bill to finance this compensation, by converting government debt (the rente ) from 5% to 3% bonds, which would save the state 30 million francs a year in interest payments, was also put before the chambers. Villèle's government argued that rentiers had seen their returns grow disproportionately to their original investment, and that

9324-435: The Secretary of the Interior's Standards (36 CFR 67); many states have laws that reference these federal regulations or create parallel regulations, using federal regulatory language. At the local level, preservation laws and regulations are known as "preservation ordinances" and define the need for private property owners to seek a "certificate of appropriateness" when making modifications to existing buildings that are listed in

9472-403: The Stratford property's sale to American showman P. T. Barnum . Another early preservation event also occurred at Berkhamsted . In 1866, Lord Brownlow who lived at Ashridge House , tried to enclose the adjoining Berkhamsted Common with 5-foot (2 m) steel fences in an attempt to claim it as part of his estate. In England from early Anglo-Saxon times, Common land was an area of land which

9620-644: The Tulane School of Architecture in 1996. The M.Sc. in Building Conservation degree program is offered by the School of Architecture at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. In 2005, Clemson University and the College of Charleston created an M.S. degree program based in Charleston, SC. The first undergraduate programs (B.A.) appeared in 1977 from Goucher College and Roger Williams University (then called Roger Williams College), followed by Mary Washington College in 1979. As of 2013 there were more than fifty historic preservation programs offering certificates, associate, bachelor's, and master's degrees in

9768-475: The United Kingdom, James Bryce the ambassador to the US praised the system of National Parks and campaigned to have them introduced in Great Britain. Little came of it until mounting public pressure during the early 20th century from the Ramblers' Association and other groups led to the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 . All of Australia's major cities have had historic or heritage preservation establishments and legislation in place since

9916-479: The United States. Under the direction of Jorge Otero-Pailos , the first PhD in Historic Preservation in the United States was founded at Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation in 2018. A historic district in the United States is a group of buildings, properties, or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant. Buildings, structures, objects and sites within

10064-416: The University of Vermont (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation Studies from Boston University (1976); M.S. in Historic Preservation from Eastern Michigan University (1979) and M.F.A. in Historic Preservation was one of the original programs at Savannah College of Art & Design . James Marston Fitch also offered guidance and support towards the founding of the Master of Preservation Studies Degree within

10212-416: The actions of préfects , who began removing certain voters who had failed to provide up-to-date documents since the 1824 election. 18,000 voters were added to the 60,000 on the first list; despite préfect attempts to register those who met the franchise and were supporters of the government, this can mainly be attributed to opposition activity. Organization was mainly divided behind Chateaubriand's Friends and

10360-424: The ancient walls of York, Chester and Newcastle. In 1833 Berkhamsted Castle became the first historic site in England to be officially protected by statute, under the London and Birmingham Railway Acts of 1833–1837, though the new railway line in 1834 did demolish the castle's gatehouse and outer earthworks to the south. In 1847 the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust was formed by a private Act of Parliament to prevent

10508-441: The army, non-Catholics, and workers hit by a post-war slump and British imports. Napoleon's emissaries informed him of this brewing discontent, and, on 20 March 1815, he returned to Paris from Elba . On his Route Napoléon , most troops sent to stop his march, including some that were nominally royalist, felt more inclined to join the former Emperor than to stop him. Louis fled from Paris to Ghent on 19 March. After Napoleon

10656-404: The body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans , to power. There is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1820 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies, ultimately felled

10804-764: The business, political and development communities to find preservation solutions for historic buildings. Some of the Conservancy's biggest success stories have included Bullocks Wilshire , the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana , the Wiltern Theater and the oldest operating McDonald's in Downey , CA. In 2006, the L.A. Conservancy won the American Planning Association 's Daniel Burnham award, its most prestigious National Planning award. This Los Angeles –related article

10952-657: The censorship laws, and the group provided organizational assistance to liberal candidates against pro-government state officials in the November 1827 election . In April 1827, the King and Villèle were confronted by an unruly National Guard . The garrison which Charles reviewed, under orders to express deference to the king but disapproval of his government, instead shouted derogatory anti-Jesuit remarks at his devoutly Catholic niece and daughter in law, Marie Thérèse, Madame la Dauphine . Villèle suffered worse treatment, as liberal officers led troops to protest at his office. In response,

11100-429: The chamber was dissolved by Louis for its reactionary measures, and electoral manipulation resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816 . Richelieu served until 29 December 1818, followed by Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles until 19 November 1819, and then Decazes (in reality the dominant minister from 1818 to 1820) until 20 February 1820. This was the era in which the Doctrinaires dominated policy, hoping to reconcile

11248-734: The city before the 1956 Summer Olympics . Sydney (Australia's oldest city) was also affected by the International Modernism period and also suffered an extensive loss of its Victorian architecture, something that subsisted well into the 1980s. From the 1950s onwards, many of Sydney's handsome sandstone and masonry buildings were wiped away by architects and developers who built "brown concrete monstrosities" in their place. The 1980s saw "uncomfortable pastiches of facades with no coherence and little artistic merit". Green bans in Australian cities such as Sydney and Melbourne came into effect in

11396-448: The classification of private property without the consent of the owner. During the 1920s and 1930s, classification further opened up to private property; additionally, monuments post-dating the Ancien régime began to be classified. In 1925, a second order of classification was introduced: inscription à l'inventaire supplémentaire des monuments historiques ( transl.  inscription in

11544-551: The combination of reluctance to understand the government's prerogatives and the fact that the classification of private property required the owners' consent resulted in the gradual decrease in the number of registered monuments. On 2 May 1887, a law was passed establishing procedures for the classification of historic monuments as well as establish provisions for a body of Architecte en chef des monuments historiques  [ fr ] for their upkeep. In 1906, French law laid down principles of classification of natural sites. Under

11692-552: The conservative Bourbons. Between 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the revolution. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests in the late 1820s pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops . In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners , kept

11840-593: The creation of a post, the Inspector General of Historic Monuments  [ fr ] , to classify buildings and distribute funds for their preservation. This post was first assigned to Ludovic Vitet on 25 November 1830, and later to Prosper Mérimée on 27 May 1834. In 1837, Bachasson , in his capacity of Minister of the Interior, officially established the Commission des monuments historiques ( transl.  Commission for Historic Monuments ) to carry out

11988-500: The demolition of the Bastille , using the term " monument historique " ( transl.  historic monument ). The idea of preserving sites linked to the Ancien régime and earlier circulated as a result, and under impetus of Talleyrand , the Assembly, on the 13th of October, created the commission des monuments ( transl.  Commission of Monuments ) whose function was to "study

12136-735: The destruction of Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium (one of the first educational institutions in Israel) in 1959, a wave of shock and anger led to extensive public debate. In 1984, The Council for Conservation of Heritage Sites in Israel was established, at the recommendation of the Knesset and the Committee of Education. Its aims include locating remains of historic settlements, protect and conserve them as well as developing conservation principles that are specific to Israel's historic situations and are aligned with international standards. The council used to operate under

12284-521: The fate of monuments, arts, and sciences." The following year, Alexandre Lenoir was appointed to create the Musée des Monuments français ( transl.  Museum of French Monuments ), which opened in 1795 and exhibited fragments of architecture Lenoir had saved and salvaged from destruction over the previous years. The museum was ultimately closed during the Restoration by Louis XVIII , and its collection

12432-593: The formation of Catholic schools. Charles, unhappy with the new government, surrounded himself with men from the Chevaliers de la Foi and other ultras, such as the Prince de Polignac and La Bourdonnaye . Martignac was deposed when his government lost a bill on local government. Charles and his advisers believed a new government could be formed with the support of the Villèle, Chateaubriand, and Decazes monarchist factions, but chose

12580-456: The future Charles X, triggered Decazes' fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras. Richelieu returned to power for a short interval, from 1820 to 1821. The press was more strongly censored, detention without trial was reintroduced, and Doctrinaire leaders, such as François Guizot , were banned from teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . Under Richelieu, the franchise was changed to give

12728-495: The government continued to consolidate its position. By 1820, the opposition liberals —who, with the ultras, made up half the chamber—proved unmanageable, and Decazes and the king were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to ensure a more tractable conservative majority. In February 1820, the assassination by a Bonapartist of the Duc de Berry , the ultrareactionary son of Louis' ultrareactionary brother and heir-presumptive,

12876-616: The government to introduce a bill to restrict the press in December, having largely withdrawn censorship in 1824. This only inflamed the opposition even more, and the bill was withdrawn. The Villèle cabinet faced increasing pressure in 1827 from the liberal press, including the Journal des débats , which sponsored Chateaubriand's articles. Chateaubriand, the most prominent of the anti-Villèle ultras, had combined with other opponents of press censorship (a new law had reimposed it on 24 July 1827) to form

13024-488: The government's Commissioners of Work and local County Councils to protect a wider range of properties. Further updates were made in 1910 . Tattershall Castle , Lincolnshire , a medieval manor house had been put up for sale in 1910 with its greatest treasures, the huge medieval fireplaces, still intact. However, when an American bought the house they were ripped out and packaged up for shipping. The former viceroy of India , George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston ,

13172-536: The government, and Charles subsequently prorogued and then dissolved parliament. Charles retained a belief that he was popular amongst the unenfranchised mass of the people, and he and Polignac chose to pursue an ambitious foreign policy of colonialism and expansionism, with the assistance of Russia . France had intervened in the Mediterranean a number of times after Villèle's resignation, and expeditions were now sent to Greece and Madagascar . Polignac also initiated

13320-564: The historic Corkman Irish Pub was illegally demolished overnight, resulting in the State Planning Minister pursuing an order (via the Victorian Administrative Appeals Tribunal ) for the two-story pub to be rebuilt. The site owners were fined AUD $ 1.325 million after pleading guilty to the process. In the city of Adelaide , large public protests erupted in the 1980s regarding the 1983 campaign to save

13468-524: The historic properties, and which took on the English Heritage operating name and logo. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to help establish it as an independent trust, although the historic properties remained in the ownership of the state. The Town and Country Planning Acts of 1944 and 1947 established the listing of buildings of special architectural or historic interest; by 2017 there were 377,700 listed buildings on

13616-636: The king retained extensive power over policy-making, as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was, nonetheless, reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, in 1830, Charles X faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not pursue his policies with

13764-526: The legislative milestone under the Liberal government of William Gladstone of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . The first government appointed inspector for this job was the archaeologist Augustus Pitt-Rivers . This legislation was regarded by conservative political elements as a grave assault on the individual rights of property of the owner, and consequently, the inspector only had

13912-447: The local community could use as a resource. Across England between 1660 and 1845, 7 million acres of Common land had been enclosed by private land owners by application to parliament. On the night of 6 March 1866, Augustus Smith MP led gangs of local folk and hired men from London's East End in direct action to break the enclosure fences and protect Berkhamsted Common for the people of Berkhamsted in what became known nationally as

14060-408: The majority of the historic preservation programs in the Netherlands, this program is decentralized, managed on the provincial level. Owners of heritage buildings can subscribe to the services of Monumentenwacht and receive regular visits for inspection. The costs are covered through a combination of national and provincial subsidies. A special kind of preservation that takes place in the Netherlands

14208-530: The mid to late 1970s, though destruction or outright demolition of historic buildings continues in most Australian cities to this day, subject to council or planning approval, particularly outside of the city centres in historic neighbourhoods. Melbourne was founded in 1835 and grew enormously in wealth and prosperity following the 1850s gold rush , which resulted in a construction boom: large edifices were erected to serve as public buildings such as libraries, court houses, schools, churches, and offices. This led to

14356-486: The militia in July 1816. Owing to tension between the King's government and the ultra-royalist Chamber of Deputies, the latter began to assert their rights. After they attempted to obstruct the 1816 budget, the government conceded that the chamber had the right to approve state expenditure. However, they were unable to gain a guarantee from the King that his cabinets would represent the majority in parliament. In September 1816,

14504-514: The monarchy returned to France but were unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution . Exhausted by the Napoleonic Wars , the nation experienced a period of internal and external peace, stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialization. Following the French Revolution (1789–1799), Napoleon Bonaparte became ruler of France. After years of expansion of his French Empire by successive military victories,

14652-550: The monarchy with the French Revolution and power with liberty . The following year, the government changed the electoral laws, resorting to gerrymandering , and altering the franchise to allow some rich men of trade and industry to vote, in an attempt to prevent the ultras from winning a majority in future elections. Press censorship was clarified and relaxed, some positions in the military hierarchy were made open to competition, and mutual schools were set up that encroached on

14800-409: The monarchy's recognition of the anniversaries of the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were significant. A more tangible source of antagonism was the pressure applied to possessors of biens nationaux (the lands confiscated by the revolution) by the Catholic Church and the returning émigrés' attempts to repossess their former lands. Other groups bearing ill-feeling towards Louis included

14948-521: The monument was "not the slightest use to anyone now". John Lubbock , an MP and botanist emerged as the champion of the country's national heritage. In 1872 he personally bought private land that housed ancient monuments in Avebury , Silbury Hill and elsewhere, from the owners who were threatening to have them cleared away to make room for housing. Soon, he began campaigning in Parliament for legislation to protect monuments from destruction. This finally led to

15096-412: The nation to disaster. Both groups shared a fear of social disorder, but the level of distrust as well as the cultural differences were too great, and the monarchy too inconsistent in its policies, for political cooperation to be possible. The returning old aristocracy recovered much of the land they had owned directly. However, they lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and

15244-500: The new law, leading to a sharp rise in its value. On 29 May 1825 the Coronation of Charles X took place at Reims Cathedral , the traditional site of French coronations . In 1826, Villèle introduced a bill reestablishing the law of primogeniture , at least for owners of large estates, unless they chose otherwise. The liberals and the press rebelled, as did some dissident ultras, such as Chateaubriand. Their vociferous criticism prompted

15392-461: The official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within the Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head. The Charter of 1814 had made France a constitutional monarchy. While

15540-399: The overall management and regulation of land use in Israel. It has been through several changes and amendments specifically regarding preservation, but over the years it hasn't been enforced and many historical sites were destroyed, as the state was prioritizing developmental and economic interests. During the 1960s, the issue of preservation was gaining public awareness, and as a response to

15688-523: The peasants were no longer under their control. The pre-Revolutionary aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism. Now the aristocracy was much more conservative and supportive of the Catholic Church. For the best jobs, meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class. Citizens' rights: Public anti-clerical sentiment became stronger than ever before, but

15836-520: The peasants' biens nationaux , and the new system of dividing the country into départments were not undone by the new king. Relations between church and state remained regulated by the Concordat of 1801 . However, in spite of the fact that the Charter was a condition of the Restoration, the preamble declared it to be a "concession and grant", given "by the free exercise of our royal authority". After

15984-501: The place of the monarchy and the church, and called for more commemorations for historical royal figures. Over the course of the parliamentary term, the ultra-royalists increasingly began to fuse their brand of politics with state ceremony, much to Louis' chagrin. Decazes, perhaps the most moderate minister, moved to stop the politicisation of the National Guard (many Verdets had been drafted in) by banning political demonstrations by

16132-486: The political establishment was relatively stable until the subsequent reign of Charles X. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a major power in French politics. Throughout the Bourbon Restoration, France experienced a period of stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialisation. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of major changes to France which

16280-439: The political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly agitated and economically suffering French masses. By 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris which outsold

16428-781: The power to identify endangered landmarks and offer to purchase them from the owner with his consent. The Act only covered ancient monuments and explicitly did not cover historic buildings or structures. In 1877 the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings was founded by the Arts and Crafts designer William Morris to prevent the destruction of historic buildings, followed by the National Trust in 1895 that bought estates from their owners for preservation. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 had only given legal protection to prehistoric sites, such as ancient tumuli . The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 took this further by empowering

16576-703: The preservation of furniture, pictures and chattels of any description having national and historic or artistic interest. In the early days, the Trust was concerned primarily with protecting open spaces and a variety of threatened buildings. Its first acquisition was Dinas Oleu, a piece of land on the clifftop above Barmouth in Wales, donated in 1895. Two other sites acquired by the Trust in its early years later became nature reserves: Wicken Fen in Cambridgeshire and Blakeney Point in Norfolk . White Barrow on Salisbury Plain

16724-515: The protection of the wider landscape. The National Trust was founded in 1894 by Octavia Hill , Sir Robert Hunter , and Hardwicke Canon Rawnsley as the first organisation of its type in the world. Its formal purpose is: The preservation for the benefit of the Nation of lands and tenements (including buildings) of beauty or historic interest and, as regards lands, for the preservation of their natural aspect, features and animal and plant life. Also

16872-426: The redistribution was just. The final law allocated state funds of 988 million francs for compensation ( le milliard des émigrés ), financed by government bonds at a value of 600 million francs at 3% interest. Around 18 million francs were paid per year. Unexpected beneficiaries of the law were some one million owners of biens nationaux , the old confiscated lands, whose property rights were now confirmed by

17020-654: The reputation of being "more royalist than the king". The legislature threw out the Talleyrand-Fouché government and sought to legitimize the White Terror, passing judgement against enemies of the state, sacking 50,000–80,000 civil servants, and dismissing 15,000 army officers. Richelieu, an émigré who had left in October 1789, who " had nothing at all to do with the new France", was appointed Prime Minister . The chambre introuvable , meanwhile, continued to aggressively uphold

17168-589: The right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. Also, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and

17316-404: The same time, international pressures, combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces, led to decreased economic activity in urban centers . This industrial downturn contributed to the rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. Thus, by 1830, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X. While the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought

17464-550: The supplementary inventory of historical monuments ). In 1930, the classifications were renamed "classé" and "inscrit" ( transl.  "classified" and "registered" ) and classification was allowed to include the land immediately surrounding a classified building. During the Nazi Occupation , numerous classifications were made both in order to prevent destruction of monuments and to provide some protection from compulsory labour . In England , antiquarian interests were

17612-477: The tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to the " Year Without a Summer " in 1816, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, who were the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, between 1827 and 1830, peasants throughout France faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices. At

17760-428: The task of demolishing up to 98% of buildings marked for removal in the city alone. The rise of this International Modernism saw a new approach that valued replacing older, elaborate inefficient buildings with new ones. An early example of this was a City of Melbourne by-law in 1954 that mandated the demolition of all posted cast-iron verandas, thought to be dangerous as well as old fashioned, in order to 'clean up'

17908-757: The throne: Britain favoured the Bourbons, the Austrians considered a regency for Napoleon's son, the King of Rome , and the Russians were open to either the duc d'Orléans , Louis Philippe , or Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , Napoleon's former Marshal , who was heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne. Napoleon was offered to keep the throne in February 1814, on the condition that France return to its 1792 frontiers, but he refused. The feasibility of

18056-530: The traditional character of Adelaide, capital became more widely available for development. The large increase in property development from 1987 increased opposition to further demolition of Adelaide's historic buildings. Local councils and lobbyists alike aimed to expand the horizon of heritage to protect historic precincts across the city, even if buildings within those precincts did not warrant heritage listing. The Bannon government slowly responded to public demand and introduced historic (conservation) zones through

18204-466: The ultras' control of power in the Chamber of Deputies; thus, the ministry of the comte de Villèle was able to continue. The restraint Louis had exercised on the ultra-royalists was removed. As the country underwent a Christian revival in the post-revolutionary years, the ultras worked to raise the status of the Roman Catholic Church once more. The Church and State Concordat of 11 June 1817

18352-465: The wealthiest electors a double vote, in time for the November 1820 election . After a resounding victory, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle , a leading Ultra who served for six years. The ultras found themselves back in power in favourable circumstances: Berry's wife, the duchesse de Berry , gave birth to a "miracle child", Henri , seven months after the duc's death; Napoleon died on Saint Helena in 1821, and his son,

18500-505: The work of classification and producing an inventory, as well as distributing funding and training architects for restoration work ( Eugène Viollet-le-Duc among them). The Commission published its first inventory in 1840 , and subsequently continued its inventory work, as well as create visual records for any future restoration. To this end, it created the Mission Héliographique to photograph monuments in 1851. During this period,

18648-517: The world, which are still property of the Netherlands, but the Dutch government rarely takes responsibility for this property that is found outside of their territory. In the United States one of the first historic preservation efforts was the Washington's Headquarters State Historic Site , in Newburgh, New York . This property has the distinction of being the first-ever property designated and operated as

18796-448: Was an important factor in their calculations. The working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds. However, France was very slow to industrialise, and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help. France was still split into localities, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that focused national pride in

18944-476: Was an influential figure in the mid-20th century establishing the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), advising on the establishment of Independence National Historical Park , helping with the first graduate degree program in historic preservation in the United States at Columbia University , and author. The architectural firm of Simons & Lapham (Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham )

19092-629: Was an influential supporter of the nation's first historic preservation ordinance in Charleston, South Carolina in 1930, affording that city a regulatory means by which to prevent the destruction of its historic building stock. In 1925, efforts to preserve the historic buildings of the French Quarter in New Orleans led to the creation of the Vieux Carré Commission and later, to the adoption of

19240-632: Was at least fifty years old and "which are of general interest because of their beauty, their meaning to science or their social value" and must thus be preserved. In 1988 this Act was replaced by the Monumentenwet 1988 ("Monuments Act 1988") and in 2015 by the Erfgoedwet ("Heritage Law"). In 1973, the NGO Monumentenwacht ("Monument Watch") was founded with the purpose of providing preventative measures of maintenance for historic buildings. As

19388-460: Was being slowly destroyed. Even well-meaning archaeologists like William Greenwell excavated sites with virtually no attempt at their preservation, Stonehenge came under increasing threat by the 1870s. Tourists were chipping off parts of the stones or carving their initials into the rock. The private owners of the monument decided to sell the land to the London and South-Western Railway who stated that

19536-475: Was consultative (except on taxation), as only the King had the power to propose or sanction laws, and appoint or recall ministers. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings, and just 1% of people could vote. Many of the legal, administrative, and economic reforms of the revolutionary period were left intact; the Napoleonic Code , which guaranteed legal equality and civil liberties,

19684-493: Was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and sent again into exile, Louis returned. During his absence a small revolt in the traditionally pro-royalist Vendée was put down but there were otherwise few subversive acts favouring the Restoration, even though Napoleon's popularity began to flag. Talleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons were restored to power, as was Joseph Fouché , Napoleon's minister of police during

19832-441: Was formed in 1895 as the first American organization of its kind in the United States that did not limit its activities to a single historic place or object. The Society operated as a national organization to: protect the natural scenery and the preservation of historic landmarks; to preserve landmarks and records of the past or present; to erect memorials and promote appreciation of the scenic beauty of America. Charles E. Peterson

19980-562: Was his basic policy. He did not try to recover land and property taken from the royalist exiles. He continued in peaceful fashion the main objectives of Napoleon's foreign policy, such as the limitation of Austrian influence. He reversed Napoleon regarding Spain and the Ottoman Empire , restoring the friendships that had prevailed until 1792. Politically, the period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but persistent civil unrest and disturbances. Otherwise,

20128-465: Was impracticable because of these payments. The legacy of this, and the White Terror, left Louis with a formidable opposition. Louis's chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu , and Élie, duc Decazes ; Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The chambre introuvable , elected in 1815 , given the nickname "unobtainable" by Louis, was dominated by an overwhelming ultra-royalist majority which quickly acquired

20276-479: Was now based in certain elements of the middle class and even the peasantry. The great masses of French people were peasants in the countryside or impoverished workers in the cities. They gained new rights and a new sense of possibilities. Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behaviour. Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt

20424-492: Was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, and the country's borders were reduced to their 1790 status, rather than 1792 as in the previous treaty. Until 1818, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers, including around 200,000 under the command of the Duke of Wellington , and France was made to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations, on top of the reparations. The promise of tax cuts, prominent in 1814,

20572-503: Was outraged at this cultural destruction and stepped in to buy back the castle and reinstall the fireplaces. After a nationwide hunt for them they were finally found in London and returned. He restored the castle and left it to the National Trust on his death in 1925. His experience at Tattershall influenced Lord Curzon to push for tougher heritage protection laws in Britain, which saw passage as

20720-504: Was politically impossible to restore them. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries) and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious were paid state salaries. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became

20868-474: Was returned to the original owners and their families. The vandalism and widespread destruction which accompanied the French Revolution had inspired several such responses, and the first known register of such buildings was an inventory of the castles begun by Louis XVI by the conseil des bâtiments civils ( transl.  Council of Civil Buildings ), which was completed in 1795. Between 1804 and 1834, several archaeological societies were formed, notably

21016-510: Was set to replace the Concordat of 1801 , but, despite being signed, it was never validated. The Villèle government, under pressure from the Chevaliers de la Foi including many deputies, voted in the Anti-Sacrilege Act in January 1825, which punished by death the theft of consecrated hosts . The law was unenforceable and only enacted for symbolic purposes, though the act's passing caused

21164-455: Was succeeded by his brother, who reigned as Charles X . The new king pursued a more conservative form of governance than Louis. His more reactionary laws included the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830). Exasperated by public resistance and disrespect, the king and his ministers attempted to manipulate the general election of 1830 through their July Ordinances . This sparked a revolution in the streets of Paris, Charles abdicated, and on 9 August 1830

21312-459: Was the Trust's first archaeological monument. White Barrow on Salisbury Plain was the Trust's first archaeological monument, purchased in 1909 for £60. The focus on country houses and gardens, which now comprise the majority of its most visited properties, came about in the mid 20th century, when it was realised that the private owners of many of these properties were no longer able to afford to maintain them. English Heritage formed in 1983,

21460-432: Was the business community, in part due to a financial crisis in 1825, which they blamed on the government's law of indemnification. Hugo and a number of other writers, dissatisfied with the reality of life under Charles X, also began to criticize the regime. In preparation for the 30 September registration cut-off for the election, opposition committees worked furiously to get as many voters as possible signed up, countering

21608-416: Was the colour of the comte d'Artois – this being the title of Charles X at the time, who was associated with the hardline ultra-royalists , or Ultras. After a period in which local authorities looked on helplessly at the violence, the King and his ministers sent out officials to restore order. A new Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, which had more punitive terms than the 1814 treaty . France

21756-509: Was the driving force behind Monumentenzorg (Foundation for Historic Preservation), helped found the Rijksmuseum (National Museum) and the Rijksarchief (National Archives). However, it was not until the 20th century that there was national legislation on historic preservation. In 1961 the Monumentenwet ("Monuments Act") was passed. It defined that any physical building or space that

21904-502: Was the first nationwide establishment of regulations for historic preservation since North Macedonia gained independence from Yugoslavia on September 8, 1991, several organizations throughout the 20th century have encompassed efforts of historic preservation. Bourbon Restoration in France Defunct Defunct The Second Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history during which

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