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88-486: The third creation of the title came in 1461 when Sir Humphrey Bourchier was summoned by writ to Parliament as Lord Cromwell. On his death the barony became extinct. The fourth creation of the title came in 1536 for the famous statesman Thomas Cromwell , who served in many political offices, including Chancellor of the Exchequer , Lord Chancellor , and Lord Privy Seal . In contrast to the three previous creations, this peerage

176-584: A vicegerential synod of bishops and academics. The synod was co-ordinated by Cranmer and Foxe, and they prepared a draft document by July: The Institution of a Christian Man , more commonly known as the Bishops' Book . By October, it was in circulation, although the King had not yet given it his full assent. However, Cromwell's success in Church politics was offset by the fact that his political influence had been weakened by

264-621: A cash economy, it was essential to raise one's esteem with fellow craftsmen to whom one could turn for favors in preference to the Verlag capitalist. A restaurant in Greece is commonly known as a taverna . Their history begins in Classical times, with the earliest evidence of a taverna discovered at the Ancient Agora of Athens ; the style remains the same to this day. Greek tavernes (plural of taverna) are

352-506: A census in 1535 to enable the government to evaluate and tax church property more effectively. A lasting achievement of Cromwell's vicegerency was his direction of Autumn 1538 that every parish in the country should securely maintain a record of all christenings, marriages and burials. Although intended as a means to identify Anabaptists (dissenting religious refugees from the Low Countries and elsewhere who did not practise infant baptism)

440-413: A local attorney , John Welbeck. Cromwell is assumed to have been the youngest of three children. He had two sisters: the elder, Katherine, married Morgan Williams, a Welsh lawyer's son who came to Putney as a follower of King Henry VII when he established himself in the nearby Richmond Palace ; the younger, Elizabeth, married William Wellyfed, a sheep farmer. Katherine and Morgan's son, Richard ,

528-417: A mansion further upstream at Mortlake and was lord of the local manor of Wimbledon . His father, Walter ( c.  1450  – c.  1514 ), was an ambitious yeoman landowner who plied various trades, operating as a sheep farmer and wool processor ('fuller' and ' shearman '), while also running a tavern and a brewery . A popular tradition that he was also a blacksmith is plausible, although

616-451: A member of his council, as one of his most senior and trusted advisers. By the end of October of that year, however, Wolsey had fallen from power. Cromwell had made enemies by aiding Wolsey to suppress the monasteries, but was determined not to fall with his master, as he told George Cavendish , then a Gentleman Usher and later Wolsey's biographer: I do entend (god wyllyng) this after none, whan my lord hathe dyned to ride to london and so to

704-473: A member of the household of Lord Chancellor Cardinal Thomas Wolsey although, initially, he maintained his private legal practice; in that year he was elected a member of Gray's Inn , a lawyers' guild. Cromwell assisted in the dissolution of nearly thirty monasteries to raise funds for Wolsey to found The King's School, Ipswich (1528), and Cardinal College , in Oxford (1529). In 1529 Wolsey appointed Cromwell

792-429: A move towards "gastro" pubs where the menu is more ambitious. Originally, taverns served as rest stops about every fifteen miles and their main focus was to provide shelter to anyone who was traveling. Such taverns would be divided into two major parts – the sleeping quarters and the bar . There is generally a sign with some type of symbol, often related to the name of the premises, to draw in customers. The purpose of this

880-558: A parlyament which contenwid by the space of xvii hole wekes wher we communyd of warre pease Stryffe contencyon debatte murmure grudge Riches poverte penurye trowth falshode Justyce equyte dicayte [deceit] opprescyon Magnanymyte actyvyte foce [force] attempraunce [moderation] Treason murder Felonye consyli... [conciliation] and also how a commune welth myght be ediffyed and a[lso] contenewid within our Realme. Howbeyt in conclusyon we have d[one] as our predecessors have been wont to doo that ys to say, as well we myght and lefte wher we begann. For

968-464: A position which he had held for some time in all but name. Cromwell immediately took steps to enforce the legislation just passed by Parliament. Before the members of both houses returned home on 30 March, they were required to swear an oath accepting the Act of Succession: all the King's subjects were now required to swear to the legitimacy of the marriage and, by implication, to accept the King's new powers and

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1056-502: A prominent role in her downfall. He fell from power in 1540, despite being created Earl of Essex that year, after arranging the King's marriage to the German princess Anne of Cleves . The marriage was a disaster for Cromwell, ending in an annulment six months later. Cromwell was arraigned under an act of attainder ( 32 Hen. 8 . c. 62 ) and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. The King later expressed regret at

1144-686: A recent addition. In Byzantine times, tavernes were the place for a social gathering, to enjoy a meal, live music and friendly talk with a drink accompanied by small variety dishes ( mezes ). In former Yugoslavia, the kafana serves food and alcoholic beverages. The most frequent Czech translation of tavern or pub is "hospoda". It comes out from hospodář (landlord) and is also close to hostitel (host), host (guest) and hostina (dinner, banquet). And also to Russian gospodin (master, lord, sir) and, not to forget, to hospitality . Traditionally, "hospoda" or "hostinec" were full-fledged facilities, providing lodging, meals and drink, an inn . In modern times,

1232-502: A seat in the House of Commons as a burgess , though the constituency he represented has not been identified with certainty. He prepared a daring speech against King Henry's declared intention of leading an invasion of France, although it was expressed tactfully in terms of concern for the King's safety while on campaign and fear of the costs such an overbold policy would entail; it was the latter point that embodied Cromwell's true concern. There

1320-545: A short while early in 1523 Cromwell became an adviser to Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset , drafting a parliamentary bill to relieve his sponsor of taxation on some property in Cumberland . Although the bill was not introduced in the 1523 session of Parliament, this may indicate that the unidentified seat for which Cromwell was returned in that year was Carlisle , Cumberland, to present the Marquess's bill. Early in 1524 he became

1408-441: A wider variety of foods, though it would be cabarets and later traiteurs which offered the finest meals before the restaurant appeared in the 18th century. Their stated purpose, however, was to serve wine (not beer or cider, which had other outlets) and they were so disreputable that women of any standing avoided them. After 1500, taxes on wine and other alcoholic beverages grew increasingly more burdensome, not only because of

1496-413: Is a complete mystery. According to novelist Hilary Mantel , "Cromwell had an illegitimate daughter, and beyond the fact that she existed, we know very little about her. She comes briefly into the records, in an incredibly obscure way—she's in the archives of the county of Chester." Jane was born to an unknown mother during the time Cromwell was mourning the loss of his wife and daughters. Jane presumably

1584-453: Is an expressive word, and "krčma" is rather archaic in Czech. The word "taverna" (from Italian) is understood as a foreign term for establishment from South-European cultures, especially Greek or Italian. In Moravia , especially South Moravia, this social role is rather fulfilled by "wine cellars". Slovak language prefers the word "krčma" as a neutral colloquial term for pubs and restaurants. It

1672-463: Is no record of when Cromwell actually delivered the speech in the chamber and some modern historians, including Michael Everett and Robert Woods, have suggested that the whole episode was no more than a ploy, sanctioned by Henry himself, to allow him to withdraw graciously from his rash threat of war. After Parliament had been dissolved, Cromwell wrote a letter to a friend, jesting about the session's lack of productivity: I amongst other have indured

1760-617: Is not used for wine bars.) As drinking beer is an important part of the Czech culture, inviting to "hospoda" generally means: "let's go and have a drink together, let's meet, chat, and socialize…". It is often equipped with a TV, billiards table, darts etc. Pubs serve both local regulars as well as excursionists, tourists and other guests. Establishments specialized primarily in the consumption of beer (beer bars) are called "výčep" ("výčap" in Slovak), expressively "nálevna", or "pajzl" (from German Baisel, originally from Jidish). "Knajpa" (from German)

1848-527: Is now known as the Reformation Parliament had been scheduled for October 1531, but was postponed until 15 January 1532 because of Henry's indecision as to the best way to proceed towards his annulment. Cromwell favoured the assertion of royal supremacy over the recalcitrant Church, and he manipulated support in the House of Commons for the measure by resurrecting anti-clerical grievances expressed earlier, in

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1936-556: Is now used to describe these houses. The legacy of taverns and inns is now only found in the pub names, e.g. Fitzroy Tavern , Silver Cross Tavern , Spaniards Inn , etc. The word also survives in songs such as " There is a Tavern in the Town ". The range and quality of pubs varies wildly throughout the UK as does the range of beers, wines, spirits and foods available. Most quality pubs will still serve cask ales and food. In recent years there has been

2024-455: Is to indicate that the establishment sells alcohol and to set it apart from the competition. Scandinavia had very high drinking rates, which led to the formation of a powerful prohibition movement in the 19th century. Magnusson (1986) explains why consumption of spirits was so high in a typical preindustrial village ( Eskilstuna ) in Sweden , 1820–50. An economic feature of this town of blacksmiths

2112-632: The Low Countries are problematic. The tradition that he quickly became a mercenary and marched with the French army to Italy, where in 1503 he fought in the Battle of Garigliano , stems from a novella by the contemporary Italian writer Matteo Bandello in which Cromwell is portrayed as a page to a foot-soldier, carrying his pike and helmet. This account was treated as fact by many later writers, including John Foxe in his Actes and Monuments of 1563. Despite

2200-471: The St Mary's Guild, Boston as part of a thriving trade. During this lengthy trip, Cromwell studied in detail Erasmus 's new edition of the gospels . His reading made him, for the first time, doubt the legitimacy of the practice he was advocating. Tracy Borman has suggested that it was at this point Cromwell developed his contempt for the papacy, because of the ease with which he had been able to manipulate

2288-725: The Succession to the Crown Act 1533 ( 25 Hen. 8 . c. 22), the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 ( 25 Hen. 8 . c. 21) reiterated royal supremacy and the Submission of the Clergy Act 1533 ( 25 Hen. 8 . c. 19) incorporated into law the clergy's surrender in 1532. On 30 March 1534, Audley gave royal assent to the legislation in the presence of the King. In April 1534, Henry confirmed Cromwell as his principal secretary and chief minister,

2376-505: The court roll regarding his manorial tenancy, a judgement that led to confiscation of all his accumulated lands. Little is known about Cromwell's mother, even though she came from a recognised gentry family, the Meverells of Staffordshire . Generally referred to as "Katherine Meverell", her first name is uncertain. She married Cromwell's father in 1474 while living in Putney in the house of

2464-539: The Act and save themselves. This failed and, within a month, both prisoners were executed. On 18 April, an order was issued that all citizens of London were to swear their acceptance of the Oath of Succession. Similar orders were issued throughout the country. When Parliament reconvened in November, Cromwell brought in the most significant revision of the treason laws since 1352, making it treasonous to speak rebellious words against

2552-540: The Act of Succession was in preparation: the appointment of three vicegerentes to supervise all ecclesiastical institutions. When the measure was put into effect on 21 January 1535, however, only one name remained: that of Cromwell. The King appointed him Royal Vicegerent and Vicar-General, and issued a warrant to authorise a visitation of all the country's churches, monasteries and clergy. Neville Williams explains that as Vicegerent in spiritual affairs, Cromwell held sway over church doctrine and religious policy, while from

2640-619: The Articles themselves, provoking opposition in September and October in Lincolnshire and then throughout the six northern counties. These widespread popular uprisings of the laity , collectively known as the Pilgrimage of Grace , found support among the gentry and even the nobility. The rebels' grievances were wide-ranging, but the most significant was the suppression of the monasteries, blamed on

2728-549: The Church. On 14 May 1532, Parliament was prorogued . Two days later, Sir Thomas More resigned as Lord Chancellor , realising that the battle to save the marriage was lost. More's resignation from the Council represented a triumph for Cromwell and the pro-Reformation faction at court. The King's gratitude to Cromwell was expressed in a grant of the lordship of the manor of Romney in the Welsh Marches (recently confiscated from

Baron Cromwell - Misplaced Pages Continue

2816-449: The County of Surrey : Baron Cromwell: Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex Thomas Cromwell ( / ˈ k r ɒ m w əl , - w ɛ l / ; c. 1485 – 28 July 1540), briefly Earl of Essex , was an English statesman and lawyer who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII from 1534 to 1540, when he was beheaded on orders of the king, who later blamed false charges for

2904-636: The Court, where I wyll other make or marre, or ere [before] I come agayn, I wyll put my self in the prese [press] to se what any man is Able to lay to my charge of ontrouthe or mysdemeanor. Cavendish acknowledges that Cromwell's moves to mend the situation were by means of engaging himself in an energetic defence of Wolsey ("There could nothing be spoken against my lord   ... but he [Cromwell] would answer it incontinent[ly]" ), rather than by distancing himself from his old master's actions, and this display of "authentic loyalty" only enhanced his reputation, not least in

2992-493: The King instigated the process. Alexander Alesius , a theologian and associate of Cromwell, wrote that it had indeed been Cromwell who hinted to Henry of Anne's infidelity, but the King had in turn instructed Cromwell to turn the rumours into proceedings. The Queen and her brother stood trial on Monday 15 May, while the four others accused with them were condemned on the Friday beforehand. The men were executed on 17 May 1536 and, on

3080-520: The King's "evil counsellors", principally Cromwell and Cranmer. One of the leaders of the rebellion was Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Darcy , who gave Cromwell the prophetic warning during his interrogation in the Tower: "[…] men who have been in cases like with their prince as ye be now have come at the last to the same end that ye would now bring me unto.". The suppression of the risings spurred further Reformation measures. In February 1537, Cromwell convened

3168-573: The Mass, the Sacraments, and the priesthood. Tavern A tavern is a type of business where people gather to drink alcoholic beverages and be served food such as different types of roast meats and cheese, and (mostly historically) where travelers would receive lodging . An inn is a tavern that has a license to put up guests as lodgers. The word derives from the Latin taberna whose original meaning

3256-583: The Queen's almoner, attending her when she was awaiting execution in the Tower . Anne, who had many enemies at court, had never been popular with the people and had so far failed to produce a male heir. The King was growing impatient, having become enamoured of the young Jane Seymour and being encouraged by Anne's enemies, particularly Sir Nicholas Carew and the Seymours. In circumstances that have divided historians, Anne

3344-521: The Royal Family, to deny their titles, or to call the King a heretic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper. The Act of Supremacy 1534 ( 26 Hen. 8 . c. 1) also clarified the King's position as head of the church and the First Fruits and Tenths Act 1534 ( 26 Hen. 8 . c. 3) substantially increased clerical taxes. Cromwell also strengthened his own control over the Church. During November 1534, another provision of

3432-478: The Vicar General title, he drew his authority over monasteries and other church institutions. By September 1535 Cromwell had appointed his own officials for church administration, with authority over the archbishops of Canterbury and York, to oversee all church affairs. He never declared that this visitation was ever complete, so he retained its extensive powers in his own hands. In this capacity, Cromwell conducted

3520-442: The advice they had been giving the King and to reject the temptation of personal gain. Skypp was called before the council and accused of malice, slander, presumption, lack of charity, sedition, treason, disobedience to the gospel, attacking "the great posts, pillars and columns sustaining and holding up the commonwealth" and inviting anarchy. Cromwell took no action against Skypp beyond the unsympathetic questioning, and he remained as

3608-614: The annulment in 1533, so Parliament endorsed the king's claim to be Supreme Head of the Church of England , giving him the authority to annul his own marriage. Cromwell subsequently charted an evangelical and reformist course for the Church of England from the unique posts of Vicegerent in Spirituals and Vicar-general (the two titles refer to the same position). During his rise to power, Cromwell made many enemies, including Anne Boleyn, with his fresh ideas and lack of nobility. He duly played

Baron Cromwell - Misplaced Pages Continue

3696-471: The association could have arisen from his use of the alternative surname of Smith (as in "Cromwell alias Smyth" ). As a successful tradesman, Cromwell's father was regularly called upon for jury service and was elected Constable of Putney in 1495. He had frequent brushes with the law himself in the local manorial court , often on relatively minor matters, but also for assault and, ultimately, in 1514, for "falsely and fraudulently" removing evidence from

3784-537: The break from Rome. On 13 April, the London clergy accepted the oath. On the same day, the commissioners offered it to Sir Thomas More and John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester, both of whom refused it. More was taken into custody on the same day and was moved to the Tower of London on 17 April. Fisher joined him there four days later. On 7 May Cromwell led a deputation from the commissioners to Fisher and More, to persuade them to accept

3872-440: The centre of the campaign to secure the annulment was the emerging doctrine of royal supremacy over the church. By the autumn of 1531, Cromwell had taken control of the supervision of the king's legal and parliamentary affairs, working closely with Thomas Audley , and had joined the inner circle of the council. By the following spring, he had begun to exert influence over elections to the House of Commons. The third session of what

3960-411: The conservative faction was gaining strength at court. Cromwell took the initiative against his enemies. He imprisoned Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter , Sir Edward Neville , and Sir Nicholas Carew on charges of treason in November 1538 (the " Exeter Conspiracy "), using evidence acquired from Sir Geoffrey Pole under interrogation in the Tower. Sir Geoffrey, "broken in spirit", was pardoned but

4048-627: The continual increase in the level of taxation but also because of the bewildering variety and multiplicity of the taxes. This chaotic system was enforced by an army of tax collectors. The resultant opposition took many forms. Wine growers and tavern keepers concealed wine and falsified their methods of selling it to take advantage of lower tax rates. The retailers also refilled their casks secretly from hidden stocks. Wine merchants stealthily circumvented inspection stations to avoid local import duties. When apprehended, some defrauders reacted with passive resignation, while others resorted to violence. Situated at

4136-584: The emergence of a Privy Council , a body of nobles and office-holders that first came together to suppress the Pilgrimage of Grace. The King confirmed his support of Cromwell by appointing him to the Order of the Garter on 5 August 1537, but Cromwell was nonetheless forced to accept the existence of an executive body dominated by his conservative opponents. In January 1538, Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what

4224-474: The execution. Cromwell was one of the most powerful proponents of the English Reformation . As the king's chief secretary, he instituted new administrative procedures that transformed the workings of government. He helped to engineer an annulment of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon so that Henry could lawfully marry Anne Boleyn . Henry failed to obtain the approval of Pope Clement VII for

4312-522: The family of the executed Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham ) and appointment to three relatively minor offices: Master of the Jewels on 14 April 1532, Clerk of the Hanaper on 16 July, and Chancellor of the Exchequer on 12 April 1533. None of these offices afforded much income, but the appointments were an indication of royal favour, and gave Cromwell a position in three major institutions of government:

4400-513: The first authoritative version in English. The King, however, continued to resist further Reformation measures. A Parliamentary committee was established to examine doctrine, and the Duke of Norfolk presented six questions on 16 May 1539 for the House to consider, which were duly passed as the Act of Six Articles shortly before the session ended on 28 June. The Six Articles reaffirmed a traditional view of

4488-683: The greatest single disaster in English literary history". Oxford University was left without a library collection until Sir Thomas Bodley 's donation in 1602. In July 1536, the first attempt was made to clarify religious doctrine after the break with Rome. Bishop Edward Foxe tabled proposals in Convocation, with strong backing from Cromwell and Cranmer, which the King later endorsed as the Ten Articles and which were printed in August 1536. Cromwell circulated injunctions for their enforcement that went beyond

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4576-406: The heart of the country town or village, the tavern was one of the traditional centers of social and political life before 1789, a meeting place for both the local population and travelers passing through and a refuge for rogues and scoundrels. Taverns symbolized opposition to the regime and to religion. Taverns sometimes served as restaurants . In Paris, the first restaurant in the modern sense of

4664-545: The household, women could deploy public power to impose limits on men's drinking behaviour. Taverns were popular places used for business as well as for eating and drinking – the London Tavern was a notable meeting place in the 18th and 19th centuries, for example. However, the word tavern is no longer in popular use in the UK as there is no distinction between a tavern and an inn. Both establishments serve wine and beer/ale. The term ' pub ' (an abbreviation of 'public house')

4752-623: The king to prosecute and bring to an end the mistress's trial, to do which he had taken considerable trouble... He set himself to devise and conspire the said affair. Regardless of the role Cromwell played in Anne Boleyn's fall, and his confessed animosity to her, Chapuys's letter states that Cromwell claimed that he was acting with the King's authority. Some historians, such as Alison Weir and Susan Bordo , are convinced that her fall and execution were engineered by Cromwell, while others, such as Diarmaid MacCulloch and John Schofield, accept that

4840-573: The loss of his chief minister and his reign never recovered from the incident. Thomas Cromwell is thought to have been born by or around 1485 in Putney , then a village in Surrey providing a ferry service across the Thames upstream from London . His grandfather, John, had moved to the area from Nottinghamshire to run a fulling mill (for wool processing) leased to him by the archbishop of Canterbury, who had

4928-479: The meaning of the word has a bit narrowed. Nevertheless, it is used colloquially to denote both traditional restaurants where people go to eat, and bars, where people mainly go to drink and socialize. "Hospoda" is nowadays a very widespread but only colloquial word, while "hostinec" or "pohostinství" were often official names of such establishment in the 20th century, now a bit obsolete. "Hospoda" could be with meals served or without, typically with tapped beer. (This term

5016-647: The measure proved to be of great benefit to the posterity of English historians. The final session of the Reformation Parliament began on 4 February 1536. By 18 March, the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 ( 27 Hen. 8 . c. 28), an act for the suppression of the Lesser Monasteries, those with a gross income of less than £200 per annum, had passed both houses. This caused a clash with Anne Boleyn, formerly one of Cromwell's strongest allies, who wanted

5104-517: The mind of the King. Cromwell successfully overcame the shadow cast over his career by Wolsey's downfall. By November 1529, he had secured a seat in Parliament as a member for Taunton and was reported to be in favour with the King. Early in this short session of Parliament (November to December 1529) Cromwell involved himself with legislation to restrict absentee clergy from collecting stipends from multiple parishes ("clerical farming") and to abolish

5192-564: The most common restaurants in Greece. A typical menu includes portion dishes, or small dishes of meat and fish, as well as salads and appetizers. Mageirefta is the menu section that includes a variety of different casserole cooked dishes every day. The other choices are mainly prepared roasted ( tis oras) or fried. Orektika (appetizers) include small dishes of Greek sauces, alifes , usually eaten on bites of bread. Tavernes offer different kinds of wines and retsina in barrels or in bottles, ouzo or tsipouro , with beer and refreshments being

5280-597: The obvious exaggerations contained in Bandello's novella, MacCulloch points out that the " picaresque " narrative provides the best available clues to shine some light on the obscurity of Cromwell's first Italian trip. While in Italy, Cromwell seems to have entered service in the household of the Frescobaldi family of Florentine bankers (Bandello has an implausibly young Francesco Frescobaldi graciously saving him from starvation on

5368-603: The office of Master of the Rolls , which he had held since 8 October 1534. On 8 July 1536, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Cromwell of Wimbledon. Cromwell orchestrated the Dissolution of the Monasteries and visitations to the universities and colleges in 1535, which had strong links to the church. This resulted in the dispersal and destruction of many books deemed "popish" and "superstitious". This has been described as "easily

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5456-406: The opponents of the old religion termed "idolatry"; statues, rood screens , and images were attacked, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. Early in September, Cromwell also completed a new set of vicegerential injunctions declaring open war on "pilgrimages, feigned relics or images, or any such superstitions" and commanding that "one book of

5544-617: The others were executed. On 17 December 1538, the Inquisitor-General of France forbade the printing of Miles Coverdale 's Great Bible . Then, Cromwell persuaded the King of France to release the unfinished books so that printing could continue in England. The first edition was finally available in April 1539. The publication of the Great Bible was one of Cromwell's principal achievements, being

5632-405: The physical and moral degradation of alcoholics. Zola's correspondence with physicians reveals that he used authentic medical sources for his realistic depictions in the novel. A common German name for German taverns or pubs is Kneipe . Drinking practices in 16th-century Augsburg, Germany, suggest that the use of alcohol in early modern Germany followed carefully structured cultural norms. Drinking

5720-1042: The pope into granting the Boston petition without due consideration. At one point during these years, Cromwell returned to England, where around 1515 he married Elizabeth Wyckes (d. 1529 ). She was the widow of Thomas Williams, a Yeoman of the Guard , and the daughter of a Putney shearman , Henry Wyckes, who had later served as a gentleman usher to King Henry VII . The couple had three children: Cromwell's wife died in 1529 and his daughters, Anne and Grace, are believed to have died not long after their mother. Their death may have been due to sweating sickness . Provisions made for Anne and Grace in Cromwell's will, dated 12 July 1529, were crossed out at some later date. Gregory outlived his father by only 11 years, succumbing to sweating sickness in 1551. Cromwell also had an illegitimate daughter, Jane ( c.  1530 –1580 ), whose early life

5808-480: The power of Rome to award dispensations for the practice. At some point during the closing weeks of 1530, the King appointed him to the Privy Council . Cromwell held numerous offices during his career in the King's service, including: as well as numerous minor offices. From 1527, Henry VIII sought to have his marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon annulled, so that he could lawfully marry Anne Boleyn . At

5896-526: The previous summer, assisted by Thomas Wriothesley , then Clerk of the Signet , he had prepared a list of suitably amenable "burgesses, knights and citizens" for the vacant parliamentary seats. The parliamentary session began on 4 February, and Cromwell introduced a new bill restricting the right to make appeals to Rome, reasserting the long-standing contention that England was an "empire" and thus not subject to external jurisdiction. On 30 March, Thomas Cranmer

5984-481: The proceeds of the dissolution used for educational and charitable purposes, not paid into the King's coffers. Anne instructed her chaplains to preach against the Vicegerent, and in a blistering sermon on Passion Sunday, 2 April 1536, her almoner , John Skypp , denounced Cromwell and his fellow Privy Councillors before the entire court. Skypp's diatribe was intended to persuade courtiers and Privy Councillors to change

6072-785: The records of the English Hospital in Rome indicate that he stayed there in June 1514, while documents in the Vatican Archives suggest that he was an agent for the Archbishop of York , Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge , and handled English ecclesiastical issues before the Roman Rota . In 1517–1518, he travelled to Rome again, this time to gain Pope Leo X 's approval for plenary indulgences to be sold by

6160-488: The royal household, the Chancery , and the Exchequer . Henry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a secret marriage on 14 November 1532 that may have taken place in Calais. On 26 January 1533 Audley was appointed Lord Chancellor and his replacement as Speaker of the House of Commons was Cromwell's old friend (and former lawyer to Cardinal Wolsey) Humphrey Wingfield . Cromwell further increased his control over parliament through his management of by-elections: since

6248-509: The same day, Cranmer declared Henry's marriage to Anne invalid, a ruling that illegitimised their daughter, Princess Elizabeth . Two days later, Anne herself was executed. On 30 May, the King married Jane Seymour. On 8 June, a new Parliament passed the Second Succession Act , securing the rights of Queen Jane's heirs to the throne. Cromwell's position was now stronger than ever. He succeeded Anne Boleyn's father, Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire , as Lord Privy Seal on 2 July 1536, resigning

6336-519: The session of 1529. Once he achieved his goal of managing affairs in Parliament, he never relinquished it. In March 1532, speaking without royal permission, he urged the House of Commons to draw up a list of clerical abuses in need of reform. On 18 March 1532, the Commons delivered a supplication to the King, denouncing clerical abuses and the power of the ecclesiastical courts, and describing Henry as "the only head, sovereign lord, protector and defender" of

6424-432: The shire (Member of Parliament) for the county. Jane, then nine years of age, accompanied him. Cromwell's records show him paying Elizabeth for clothing and expenses for Jane. It is unknown what became of Jane's mother, though historian Caroline Angus argues that Jane's mother was Elizabeth Gregory, a former household servant who was left a surprisingly large amount of money and items in Cromwell's will. Elizabeth Gregory

6512-580: The streets of Florence). It appears that he later worked as a cloth merchant in the Low Countries, where his frequentation of English Merchant Adventurers allowed him to develop useful contacts and gain familiarity with several languages. Cromwell, who was known to have a prodigious memory, was probably already fluent in French and Italian , as well as being proficient in Latin , with some knowledge also of Ancient Greek . At some point Cromwell returned to Italy:

6600-702: The term was founded in 1765. However, the first Parisian restaurant worthy of the name was the one founded by Beauvilliers in 1782 in the Rue de Richelieu, called the Grande Taverne de Londres . Émile Zola 's novel L'Assommoir ('The Tavern', 1877) depicted the social conditions typical of alcoholism in Paris among the working classes. The drunk destroyed not only his own body, but also his employment, his family, and other interpersonal relationships. The characters Gervaise Macquart and her husband Coupeau exemplified with great realism

6688-486: The validity of his marriage to Catherine was to be the subject of an ecclesiastical court hearing. The trial began on 10 May 1533 at Dunstable Priory (near to where Catherine was staying at Ampthill Castle ) and on 23 May the Archbishop pronounced the court's verdict, declaring the marriage "null and invalid…contrary to the law of God". Five days later he pronounced the King's marriage to Anne to be lawful, and on 1 June, she

6776-422: The whole Bible in English" be set up in every church. Moreover, following the "voluntary" surrender of the remaining smaller monasteries during the previous year, the larger monasteries were now also "invited" to surrender throughout 1538, a process legitimised in the 1539 session of Parliament and completed in the following year. The King was becoming increasingly unhappy about the extent of religious changes, and

6864-452: Was Cromwell's agent in Chester from 1534 to 1540. Jane and her husband remained staunch Roman Catholics, who, together with their daughter, Alice, her husband, William Whitmore, and their children, all came to the attention of the authorities as recusants during the reign of Elizabeth I. By 1520, Cromwell was firmly established in London mercantile and legal circles. In 1523, he obtained

6952-467: Was a shed , workshop , stall , or pub . Over time, the words "tavern" and "inn" became interchangeable and synonymous. In England, inns started to be referred to as public houses or pubs and the term became standard for all drinking houses. From at least the 14th century, taverns, along with inns, were the main places to dine out. Typically, a tavern offered various roast meats, as well as simple foods like bread, cheese, herring, and bacon. Some offered

7040-404: Was accused of adultery with: Mark Smeaton , a musician of the royal household; Sir Henry Norris , the King's groom of the stool and one of his closest friends; Sir Francis Weston ; Sir William Brereton ; and her brother, George Boleyn, 2nd Viscount Rochford . The Imperial Ambassador, Eustace Chapuys , wrote to Charles V that: he himself [Cromwell] has been authorised and commissioned by

7128-492: Was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury, and Convocation immediately declared the King's marriage to Catherine unlawful. In the first week of April 1533, Parliament passed Cromwell's bill into law, as the Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532 ( 24 Hen. 8 . c. 12), ensuring that any adjudication concerning the King's marriage could not be challenged in Rome. On 11 April, Archbishop Cranmer sent the King formal notice that

7216-520: Was created by letters patent . In 1540, Lord Cromwell was made Earl of Essex , but later that year he was executed for treason, and all of his titles were forfeit. The final creation of the title came in 1540 for Cromwell's son, Gregory , also by letters patent. His great-grandson, the fourth baron, was made Earl of Ardglass in 1645. The heir apparent is the present holder's son the Hon. David Godfrey Bewicke-Copley (b. 1998) Baron Cromwell, of Wimbledon in

7304-511: Was crowned queen. In December, the King authorised Cromwell to discredit the papacy. The minister organised an adept smear campaign throughout the nation, attacking the Pope in sermons, pamphlets and plays mounted in parish churches. In 1534 a new Parliament was summoned, again under Cromwell's supervision, to enact the legislation necessary to make a formal break of England's remaining ties with Rome. Archbishop Cranmer's verdict took statutory form as

7392-409: Was educated and resided in Cromwell's homes, but in 1539, Margaret Vernon, the worldly Prioress of Little Marlow Priory (who had also helped to raise Gregory Cromwell ) suggested she take Jane to begin her education away from home. In that same year Jane's half-brother Gregory (at age nineteen) and his wife Elizabeth moved into Leeds Castle , Kent, in preparation for Gregory's election as a knight of

7480-622: Was employed in his uncle's service and by the autumn of 1529 had changed his name to Cromwell. Richard was the great-grandfather of Oliver Cromwell . Cromwell acknowledged to Thomas Cranmer , the Archbishop of Canterbury, that he had been a "ruffian ... in his young days". Around the turn of the century, for reasons which remain unclear, he left his family in Putney and crossed the Channel to continental Europe, allegedly after spending some time in prison. Accounts of his activities in France , Italy and

7568-475: Was listed among family members in the will, despite not being any relation to the Cromwell, Williams, Wyckes or Williamson families. Cromwell was known to be one of the few men at court without mistresses and tried to keep this indiscretion secret. Jane married William Hough ( c.  1527 –1585), of Leighton in the Wirral Hundred , around 1550. William Hough was the son of Richard Hough (1505–1574) who

7656-412: Was not a sign of insecurity and disorder. It helped define and enhance men's social status and was therefore tolerated among men as long as they lived up to both the rules and norms of tavern society and the demands of their role as householders. Tavern doors were closed to respectable women unaccompanied by their husbands, and society condemned drunkenness among women, but when alcohol abuse interfered with

7744-473: Was the Verlag , or outwork production system , with its complex network of credit relationships. The tavern played a crucial role in cultural and business life and was also the place where work and leisure were fused. Heavy drinking facilitated the creation of community relationships in which artisans and workers sought security. Buying drinks rather than saving money was a rational strategy when, before adjustment to

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