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65-630: The Longqing Emperor (4   March 1537 – 5   July 1572), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Muzong of Ming , personal name Zhu Zaiji , art name Shunzhai , was the 13th emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigned from 1567 to 1572. He was initially known as the Prince of Yu ( 裕王 ) from 1539 to 1567 before he became the emperor. He succeeded his father, the Jiajing Emperor . After

130-676: A decade and was considered the most competent administrator of the late Ming dynasty. In the years that followed, the reforms persisted, with the Longqing Emperor approving changes proposed by experienced statesmen such as Gao Gong, Chen Yiqin, and Zhang Juzheng. An evaluation was conducted on the government officials, including those from the princely households. Competent officials were promoted, while inadequate ones were removed from their positions. Taxes for those affected by natural disasters were lowered, and land surveys and tax records were updated. Restrictions were placed on certain expenses for

195-466: A memorandum suggesting that Zhu Zaiji be appointed as his successor. In response, the emperor was outraged and ordered the execution of the writer. However, later that year, he changed his mind and ordered Zhu Zaizhen to go to his seat in Anlu , Huguang . This decision strengthened Zhu Zaiji's position, although he continued to be excluded from the emperor's entourage and neglected. Unlike the deceased Zhu Zairui,

260-540: A monarch should be honored as "祖" ( zǔ ; "progenitor") or "宗" ( zōng ; "ancestor"), a principle was strictly adhered to: "祖" was to be given to accomplished rulers while "宗" was to be assigned to virtuous rulers. However, this principle was effectively abandoned during the Sixteen Kingdoms era with the ubiquitous usage of "祖" by various non- Han regimes. Temple names became widespread from the Tang dynasty onwards. Apart from

325-579: A new era name would reset the numbering of the year back to year one, known as yuán nián ( 元年 ; lit. "year of origin"). On the first day of the Chinese calendar , the numbering of the year would increase by one. To name a year using an era name only requires counting years from the first year of the era. For example, 609 CE was the fifth year of Daye ( 大業 ; lit. "great endeavour"), as the era began in 605 CE; traditional Chinese sources would therefore refer to 609 CE as Dàyè wǔ nián ( 大業五年 ). The numbering of

390-525: A new reconciliation policy, allowing for trade with the Mongols. (Bronze) coins, also known as coppers, were primarily used along the Grand Canal in the mid-16th century, causing a shortage in other areas and hindering trade. In 1567, Minister of Revenue, Ge Shouli ( 葛守禮 ), suggested resuming production of these coins due to their importance in the daily lives of urban citizens. He believed that losing control over

455-417: A shortage, and that using silver for payments was disadvantageous for smaller payers. However, their proposal was met with opposition from Gao Gong, who argued that having two currencies would lead to the state manipulating their exchange rate and causing mistrust among the population. Despite this, the mints were only open for a short period of time, until the death of the Longqing Emperor. In foreign affairs,

520-616: A total of seven era names during his reign. The Hongwu Emperor started the tradition of having only one era name for one monarch—known as the yí shì yì yuán zhì ( 一世一元制 ; lit. "one-era-name-for-a-reign system"). Thus, modern historians would frequently refer to monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties by their respective era name. Notable exceptions to this "one-era-name" tradition included Zhu Qizhen who proclaimed two era names for his two separate reigns, Aisin Gioro Hong Taiji who used two era names to reflect his position as khan of

585-640: Is based on the era name system of Imperial China. Numerous attempts to reinstate monarchical rule in China had resulted in the declaration of additional era names after the founding of the Republic, but these regimes and their associated era names were short-lived. In 1949, the People's Republic of China was founded and the era was changed to the Common Era , for both internal and external affairs in mainland China . This notation

650-572: Is conventionally regarded as the first ruler to declare an era name. Prior to the introduction of the first era name in 140 BCE, Chinese monarchs utilized the Qianyuan ( 前元 ), Zhongyuan ( 中元 ) and Houyuan ( 後元 ) systems to identify and number years. Prior to the Ming dynasty , it was common for Chinese sovereigns to change the era name during their reigns, resulting in the use of more than one era name for one ruler. For instance, Emperor Xuan of Han used

715-512: Is either "祖" or "宗": Chinese era name Chinese era names , also known as reign mottos , were titles used by various Chinese dynasties and regimes in Imperial China for the purpose of year identification and numbering . The first monarch to adopt era names was the Emperor Wu of Han in 140 BCE, and this system remained the official method of year identification and numbering until

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780-477: Is rumored that he sought entertainment and luxury as a means of compensating for years of neglect and deprivation. Concerned officials began to voice their objections, citing his declining health and exhaustion, both physically and mentally. During the Longqing era, the government adopted a more open approach to trade compared to the previous Jiajing regime. In 1567, the grand coordinator of Fujian proposed to abolish

845-480: Is simply the usual rhetoric. It is noted that he was not naturally strong or ambitious, in contrast to his father. He was known for being friendly and kind, and during his reign, there were fewer severe punishments for high officials compared to previous years. However, he lacked his father's drive for power, as well as his temper and cruelty. Additionally, he did not possess the same strength of faith in Taoism as his father,

910-582: The Haijin policy, which was approved by the government and the emperor. This led to the restoration of maritime inspection offices and the legalization of foreign trade, primarily in Yuegang (Moon Port) in Fujian. However, trade with Japan remained prohibited. The relaxation of legal restrictions resulted in a significant increase in trade. In addition to the southeast coast, the northern borders were also opened as part of

975-602: The Eastern Han dynasty . In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor , but his temple name was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor . There were also instances of individuals ruling as

1040-608: The Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan ). Most Chinese era names consisted of two Chinese characters , even though era names with three, four and six characters also existed. Shijianguo ( 始建國 ; lit. "the beginning of establishing a country") of the Xin dynasty , Tiancewansui ( 天冊萬歲 ; lit. "Heaven-conferred longevity") of the Wu Zhou , and Tiancilishengguoqing ( 天賜禮盛國慶 ; lit. "Heaven-bestowed ritualistic richness, nationally celebrated") of

1105-595: The Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei took the throne. On the other hand, the era name Tianxian ( 天顯 ; lit. "heavenly intent") was originally proclaimed by the Emperor Taizu of Liao but its usage was continued by the Emperor Taizong of Liao upon assuming the throne. There were numerous era names that saw repeated use throughout Chinese history. For instance, the era name Taiping ( 太平 ; lit. "great peace")

1170-571: The Forbidden City to his princely palace. For thirteen years, he lived outside the Forbidden City, gaining experience of conditions beyond the Imperial Palace and developing an understanding of the country's issues. The Jiajing Emperor ensured that he and the officials treated the third and fourth sons equally, sparking speculation at court about who would be the new successor. This speculation

1235-451: The Great Wall and reached Beijing. A peace treaty was signed shortly after, allowing for the resumption of the exchange of horses for silk. During the reign of the Longqing Emperor, like many previous Ming emperors, there was a heavy reliance on court eunuchs. One particular eunuch, Meng Cong ( 孟沖 ), who was supported by Grand Secretary Gao Gong , gained control over the inner court towards

1300-779: The Later Jin and later as emperor of the Qing dynasty, as well as Aisin Gioro Puyi who adopted three era names in his capacity as emperor of the Qing dynasty and subsequently as ruler of Manchukuo . With the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, the Chinese era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar which remains in official use in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu Islands . The Republic of China calendar, while not an era name,

1365-480: The Western Xia are examples of Chinese era names that bore more than two characters. Era names were symbols of political orthodoxy and legitimacy. Hence, most Chinese monarchs would proclaim a new era upon the founding of a new dynasty. Rebel leaders who sought to establish independence and legitimacy also declared their own era names. Often, vassal states and tributary states of Imperial China would officially adopt

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1430-558: The Era System, their treaties with other countries are in the Dionysian Era ( AD ) system. In modern times, only Republic of China and Japan still continue to use the ancient Chinese era naming system. Even in the domestic arena, the era system can present difficult dilemmas. For example, in Japan, it is difficult to keep track of the age of people who were born in the previous era. Also, while

1495-464: The Jiajing Emperor and a concubine surnamed Du. He was the emperor's third son; the eldest son had died in infancy before Zhu Zaiji's birth, and his second son, Zhu Zairui , was six months older than him. A month after Zhu Zaiji's birth, the emperor's fourth son, Zhu Zaizhen , was born. In February 1539, the Jiajing Emperor created Zhu Zairui the crown prince. On the same day, Zhu Zaiji was granted

1560-434: The Jiajing Emperor. Additionally, he lifted the ban on foreign trade, boosting the empire's economy, and reorganized the border troops to strengthen security on the inland and coastal borders. The seaports of Zhejiang and Fujian were fortified to defend against coastal pirates, who had been a constant nuisance during the previous government. The emperor also successfully repelled Altan Khan 's Mongol army, which had breached

1625-471: The Jiajing Emperor. He was successful in strengthening his government by aligning himself with capable politicians, a rarity during the Ming dynasty. While his minimal involvement in state affairs did not have a negative impact, as competent ministers and Grand Secretaries were responsible for handling them, it did lead to a power struggle within the Grand Secretariat. The winner of this struggle would have

1690-432: The Jiajing Emperor. The Longqing Emperor also suffered from a speech defect, which caused him to only speak to his eunuchs. In public, he was always silent and even during formal events, his Grand Secretaries would deliver his lines for him. He was perceived to have average intelligence at best, but he was determined to be taken seriously. He implemented reforms and policy changes during his reign, particularly in relation to

1755-404: The Longqing Emperor began with the implementation of the Jiajing Emperor's "dying orders", which aimed to bring about reform and political change. Senior Grand Secretary Xu Jie , in collaboration with Zhang Juzheng , drafted the "final edict" of the Jiajing Emperor and the first edicts of the Longqing Emperor's reign, which were approved by Longqing himself. These edicts, with the goal of "removing

1820-460: The Longqing era was a period of peace. Apart from Guangdong , the pirate raids, so devastating in the Jiajing era , subsided. The grand military parade held in the autumn of 1569 was a momentous occasion. (The previous parade had taken place in 1429 and the next one would not occur until 1581.) As part of the parade, incompetent officers were dismissed and the units underwent rigorous training. Despite

1885-729: The ROC and Japan both continue to use the ancient Chinese era system, since they have partially adopted the Gregorian calendar for non-governmental use, it is more difficult to track down dates that fall on February 29 leap year in the Western calendar. Furthermore, in Japan, in theory it is difficult to mention future dates since it is sometimes hard to tell whether the current emperor will live long enough for its citizens to use that era name. However, in practice, documents like driver's licenses and 50-year leases use era dates without regard to this problem. On

1950-487: The Taoist Immortal Lands, was dismantled. Officials who had been punished for opposing the policies of the Jiajing Emperor were pardoned and released from prison. Those who were still alive were reinstated to their positions, and those who had died were given posthumous honors. These reforms were generally well-received. In the long term, the most noteworthy event during the early days of the Longqing Emperor's reign

2015-513: The authority to make final decisions on state matters. Gao Gong, who had been one of the Longqing Emperor's closest mentors during his youth, was able to consolidate power as the head of the Grand Secretariat (and also held the title of Minister of Personnel) more than any of his predecessors. Within months of ascending to the throne, he became disinterested in matters of state and instead devoted much of his time to extravagant parties with his consorts, indulging in opulence and living extravagantly. It

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2080-456: The bad" and "introducing the new", revoked the unpopular policies of the Jiajing Emperor and introduced long-awaited reforms. The Taoist priests who had held significant influence during the previous era were imprisoned and their rituals were banned. The orders to gather ingredients for their rituals were also cancelled. The area in West Park , which was built by the Jiajing Emperor and modeled after

2145-516: The border troops, pursued a policy of appeasement and negotiated peace with Altan Khan in 1571. As part of the agreement, the Ming dynasty opened border markets where the Mongols could trade their horses and other surplus goods for Chinese goods. Altan Khan was also granted the title of Prince of Shunyi (Obedience and Righteousness) by the Longqing Emperor. The emperor died on 5 July 1572 at the age of thirty-five. Prior to his death, he entrusted ministers Gao Gong , Zhang Juzheng , and Gao Yi ( 高儀 ) with

2210-464: The currency would also mean losing control over the entire economy, as silver and those who profited from it would dominate. However, the Ministry of Works rejected the proposal, citing the high cost of casting the coins, which was twice their value. Opponents of the minister argued that the existing coins were sufficient for the limited regions where they were in circulation. Later, in the years 1569–1570,

2275-412: The death of the Jiajing Emperor, the new Longqing Emperor inherited a country in turmoil due to years of mismanagement and corruption. Recognizing the extent of the chaos caused during his father's lengthy reign, the emperor worked to restore order in the state administration. He reinstated talented officials who had been previously exiled and dismissed corrupt officials and Taoist priests who had surrounded

2340-426: The emperor did not like him. Despite being 29 years old at the time of his accession to the throne and having a Confucian education, Zhu Zaiji lacked deep knowledge in statesmanship and was not adequately prepared to govern an empire. The Jiajing Emperor died on 23 January 1567, and twelve days later, Zhu Zaiji became the new emperor. He apdopted the era name Longqing , which means "great celebration". The reign of

2405-534: The emperor held a grudge against Zhu Zaiji for not observing sexual abstinence during the mourning period (this version was fueled by the fact that Zhu Zaiji had a son in October 1555, only 18 months after his mother's death). In September 1552, Zhu Zaiji and his younger brother began receiving education together. Two months later, their wives were chosen and they were married in February 1553. After that, Zhu Zaiji moved from

2470-475: The emperor was convinced by Minister of War Tan Lun and Left Vice Minister of Personnel Jin Xueyan ( 靳學顏 ) to reopen the mints. They argued that it was necessary to increase the money supply during a silver shortage, as this would lead to a decrease in the price of silver and an increase in the value of goods. They also believed that a medium of exchange was needed to prevent the wealthy from hoarding silver and causing

2535-400: The end of the emperor's reign. Despite a promising start, the Longqing Emperor quickly neglected his duties as a ruler and instead focused on personal pleasures, much to the disappointment of his reform-minded advisors. The emperor also made contradictory decisions by re-employing Taoist priests, whom he had previously banned at the beginning of his reign. Zhu Zaiji was born on 4 March 1537, to

2600-616: The era name of the reigning Chinese monarch as a sign of subordination—a practice known as fèng zhēng shuò ( 奉正朔 ; lit. "following the first month of the year and the first day of the month"). For example, Korean regimes such as Silla , Goryeo , and Joseon at various times formally adopted the era names of the Tang , Wu Zhou, Later Liang , Later Tang , Later Jin , Later Han , Later Zhou , Northern Song , Liao , Jin , Yuan , Northern Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties of China for both domestic and diplomatic purposes. The Emperor Wu of Han

2665-562: The establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, when the era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar . Other polities in the Sinosphere — Korea , Vietnam and Japan —also adopted the concept of era name as a result of Chinese politico-cultural influence. Chinese era names were titles adopted for the purpose of identifying and numbering years in Imperial China. Era names originated as mottos or slogans chosen by

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2730-718: The final ruler of a dynasty, monarchs who died prematurely, or monarchs who were deposed, most Chinese monarchs were given temple names by their descendants. The practice of honoring rulers with temple names had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes within the East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere, including those based on the Korean Peninsula and in Vietnam. Japan, while having adopted both posthumous names and era names from China, did not assign temple names to its monarchs. Most temple names consist of two Chinese characters, unlike

2795-586: The following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of the Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of the Lý , Trần , and Later Lê dynasties (with the Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to

2860-442: The good of the empire and instead became mortal enemies. In the summer of 1567, Gao Gong was dismissed from the Grand Secretariat, followed by Xu Jie the following year. When Gao Gong returned to office in the early 1570s, he and his followers sought revenge against Xu and his sons. The information available about the Longqing Emperor is vague and contradictory. While official history praises his thrift and humanity, it seems that this

2925-593: The grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death. The temple name system established during the Shang period utilized only four adjectives: Chinese monarchs of the Zhou dynasty were given posthumous names but not temple names. During the Qin dynasty , the practices both of assigning temple names and posthumous names

2990-422: The high cost, it greatly boosted the morale of both the soldiers and the onlookers. The vibrant spectacle, with the emperor at its center, was meticulously planned by Zhang Juzheng, who was dedicated to fortifying border defenses and revitalizing the military. Apart from uplifting the spirits of the troops, the parade also provided a refreshing break from the monotonous palace life for the emperor. Immediately after

3055-561: The imperial household. However, Xu Jie, Senior Grand Secretary at the beginning of the Longqing Emperor's reign, had already rejected the cooperation of Grand Secretaries Gao Gong and Guo Pu when writing the Jiajing Emperor's "final edict". Instead, he invited Zhang Juzheng, who was then the director of the Hanlin Academy . This caused a conflict with his colleagues in the secretariat. A contemporary commentator sadly remarked on this, noting that such capable men were unable to work together for

3120-458: The more elaborate posthumous names. In extremely rare cases, temple names could consist of three characters. The first character is an adjective, chosen to reflect the circumstances of the monarch's reign. The vocabulary may overlap with that of the posthumous names' adjectives; however, for one sovereign, the temple name's adjective character usually does not repeat as one of the many adjective characters in his posthumous name. The last character

3185-538: The other hand, others suggest that the AD system has too much Christian connotation behind it and it is a form of cultural imperialism when an essentially European system of dating is forced upon other civilizations with their own long-used and equally legitimate dating systems. However, with globalization, the AD system is becoming more acceptable in Japan and the ROC. Modern history researchers do not care about era names except for supporting other arguments, such as figuring out

3250-547: The parade, the Mongol army led by Altan Khan breached the Great Wall and ravaged the northern border regions. Prior to this, there had been fighting in the winter of 1567/68, during which Ming troops not only defended their territory but also made several forays into the Mongolian steppes. However, in the early 1570s, the Ming dynasty's long-term policy towards the Mongols changed. Gao Gong and Zhang Juzheng, in addition to strengthening

3315-457: The position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao was posthumously honored as an emperor and given the temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty . Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as was the case for Emperor Huan , whose temple name, Weizong , was abolished by Emperor Xian of

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3380-482: The reigning monarch and usually reflected the political, economic and/or social landscapes at the time. For instance, the first era name proclaimed by the Emperor Wu of Han , Jianyuan ( 建元 ; lit. "establishing the origin"), was reflective of its status as the first era name. Similarly, the era name Jianzhongjingguo ( 建中靖國 ; lit. "establishing a moderate and peaceful country") used by the Emperor Huizong of Song

3445-563: The responsibility of managing state affairs and serving as loyal advisors to his ten-year-old son, the Wanli Emperor . The Longqing Emperor was buried in Zhao Mausoleum , one of the Ming tombs located near Beijing. He was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhuang ( 莊帝 ) and the temple name Muzong ( 穆宗 ). The Longqing Emperor had four sons and seven daughters. His first son, Zhu Yiyi (October 1555 – May 1559, posthumous name "Xianhuai"),

3510-536: The second year of Dali began on the first day of the Chinese calendar the following year, just two months after its initiation. When a new monarch ascended to the throne, he could either declare a new era immediately or inherit the usage of the existing era name from his predecessor. For example, the era name Wutai ( 武泰 ; lit. "exalted martial") of the Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei was immediately replaced with Jianyi ( 建義 ; lit. "establishing justice") when

3575-497: The sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire , who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty . The "temple" in "temple name" (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for the purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within

3640-511: The title of Prince of Yu, and the fourth son of Zhu Zaizhen was given the title of Prince of Jing. In 1549, Crown Prince Zhu Zairui died. His death caused the Jiajing Emperor to feel immense sorrow and regret, as he believed he had not listened to the supposed advice of his Taoist priest Tao Zhongwen, who had warned him that "two dragons should not face each other". This may have been the reason why he refused to create another crown prince, and also avoided seeing Zhu Zaiji. Another version suggests that

3705-441: The use of era names today. While the era system is a more traditional system of dating that preserves Chinese and Japanese culture, it presents a problem for the more globalized Asian society and for everyday life. For example, even though within the nation people will know what era they are in, it is relatively meaningless for other nations. In addition, while the Republic of China (ROC) and Japan only recognize documents dated in

3770-495: The year would still increase on the first day of the Chinese calendar each year, regardless of the month in which the era name was adopted. For example, as the Emperor Daizong of Tang replaced the era name Yongtai ( 永泰 ; lit. "perpetual peace") with Dali ( 大曆 ; lit. "great era") in the eleventh month of the Chinese calendar in 766 CE, the first year of Dali thus only consisted of the last two months of that particular year;

3835-453: Was abandoned. The Han dynasty reintroduced both titles, although temple names were assigned sporadically and remained more exclusive than posthumous names. It was also during the Han era that other adjectives aside from the four listed above began appearing in temple names. Numerous Han emperors had their temple names removed by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, in AD 190. Initially, in deciding whether

3900-543: Was born to his first wife. Unfortunately, his second son died as an infant. The third son, Zhu Yijun , inherited the throne. The fourth son, Zhu Yiliu (1568–1614, posthumous name "Jian"), held the title of Prince of Lu and resided in Weihui, Henan . Both Zhu Yijun and Zhu Yiliu were born to one of the Longqing Emperor's concubines, surnamed Li. Out of the seven daughters, only four survived into adulthood. Consorts and issue: Temple name Modern academia usually refers to

3965-423: Was extended to Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in 1999 (de facto extended in 1966) through Annex III of Hong Kong Basic Law and Macau Basic Law , thus eliminating the ROC calendar in these areas. The concept of era name also saw its adoption by neighboring Korea and Vietnam since the middle of the 6th century CE, and by Japan since the middle of the 7th century CE. Notably, Japan still officially retains

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4030-416: Was further fueled by the Jiajing Emperor's fondness for the mother of the younger Zhu Zaizhen, with whom he spent a lot of time. In contrast, when Zhu Zaiji's mother died in February 1554, the funeral arrangements had to be revised twice, as the Jiajing Emperor suppressed any insinuation that she held a higher status than just the mother of the presumptive successor. In March 1560, the Jiajing Emperor received

4095-402: Was indicative of Huizong's idealism towards moderating the rivalry among the conservative and progressive factions regarding political and social reforms. The process of declaring an era name was referred to in traditional Chinese historical texts as jiànyuán ( 建元 ). Proclaiming a new era name to replace an existing era name was known as gǎiyuán ( 改元 ; lit. "change the origin"). Instituting

4160-400: Was the selection of Zhang Juzheng as Grand Secretary. Zhang had been the emperor's tutor since 1563, and the emperor saw him as a man with exceptional abilities. Throughout the Longqing Emperor's reign, Zhang's power and influence increased, and after the emperor's died, he swiftly rose to the position of Senior Grand Secretary. He became the most influential politician in the Ming government for

4225-512: Was used on at least ten occasions in China. In such cases, Chinese sources would often affix the name of the dynasty or the ruler before the era name for the purpose of disambiguation. For example, when referencing the year 410 CE, Chinese sources could either render it as Běi Yān Tàipíng èr nián ( 北燕太平二年 ; lit. "second year of Taiping of the Northern Yan ") or Běi Yān Wéngchéng Dì Tàipíng èr nián ( 北燕文成帝太平二年 ; lit. "second year of Taiping of

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