115-519: The long 18th century is a phrase used by many British historians to cover a more natural historical period than the simple use of the standard calendar definition. They expand the century to include larger British and Western European historical movements, with their subsequent "long" 18th century typically running from the Glorious Revolution and the beginning of the Nine Years' War in 1688 to
230-562: A Stuart ever had". Although historians generally accept James wished to promote Catholicism, not establish an absolute monarchy , his stubborn and inflexible reaction to opposition had the same result. When the English and Scottish Parliaments refused to repeal the 1678 and 1681 Test Acts , he suspended them in November 1685 and ruled by decree. Attempts to form a 'King's party' of Catholics, English Dissenters and dissident Scottish Presbyterians
345-509: A non-juror . Accompanied by Duncanson, Campbell of Auchinbreck escaped to Holland, returning after the Glorious Revolution . He petitioned Parliament in 1690, claiming Royalist Maclean clansmen had destroyed Carnasserie Castle , stolen 2,000 head of cattle, hanged his relative Dugald MacTavish of Dunardry , and "barbarously murdered" his uncle Alexander Campbell of Strondour. Of the rebel rank and file, 177 were transported to Jamaica and 100 to New Jersey. Amongst those who suffered most from
460-497: A Catholic sympathiser named Anthony Farmer as president, but as he was ineligible under the college statutes, the fellows elected John Hough instead. Both Farmer and Hough withdrew in favour of another candidate selected by James, who then demanded the fellows personally apologise on their knees for 'defying' him; when they refused, they were replaced by Catholics. Attempts to create an alternative 'Kings Party' were never likely to succeed, as English Catholics made up only 1.1% of
575-414: A Tory, and Devonshire , a Whig; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, for the church; Shrewsbury and Lumley for the army, and finally Russell and Sydney for the navy. They promised to support a Dutch landing, but stressed the importance of acting quickly. The Invitation was carried to The Hague on 30 June by Rear Admiral Herbert , disguised as a common sailor. Meanwhile, William's ally Bentinck launched
690-709: A campaign in Germany. At the beginning of September, an invasion remained in the balance, with the States General fearing a French attack via Flanders while their army was in England. However, the surrender of Belgrade on 6 September seemed to presage an Ottoman collapse and release Austrian resources for use in Germany. Hoping to act before Leopold could respond and relieve pressure on the Ottomans, Louis attacked Philippsburg . With France now committed in Germany, this greatly reduced
805-461: A countryman acting as Fullarton's guide: he obtained a farmer's clothing and had already grown a long beard during his previous exile. The two men were stopped by militia while fording a river near Inchinnan , and taken prisoner. Cochrane, accompanied by Hume, Major James Henderson and about 150 men, had forced a crossing of the Clyde near Old Kilpatrick. After suffering further desertions and driving off
920-713: A good relationship with Rumbold. Unlike Monmouth, Argyll was not widely popular even among his own tenants, whose land rents quadrupled between 1665 and 1685; his Campbell rival Breadalbane raised 800 men to fight for the government. His army never numbered more than 2,500, with some estimates placing it under 1,500, a disappointing figure given the 8,000 who turned out for the 1679 rebellion. The rebels crossed to Bute seeking manpower and supplies, an exercise which proved of little value. They wasted three days looking for boats to transport them, attempts to requisition more on Great Cumbrae failed when Government soldiers crossed from Largs and destroyed them, while looting restricted
1035-454: A group of militia, a remaining group of 75 reached a place called the Muirdykes, or Muirdykes Mount, near Lochwinnoch , on the afternoon of 18 June. They drew up in a small close protected by low stone walls and were attacked by a troop of dragoons led by Cochrane's relative William, Lord Ross . Cochrane rejected Ross's offer of quarter and successfully defended their position until nightfall;
1150-504: A man; only, the greatest coward when straitned [...] will fight desperately eneugh". As Argyll was technically incapable of committing further offences since his dubious 1681 treason conviction, he was hurriedly beheaded on 30 June under the 1681 charge, despite acts committed in the interim. Most observers commented on his good humour while awaiting execution; he spent much of the time petitioning on behalf of his tenants, asking that they should not be penalised for their involvement. Rumbold
1265-620: A naval mutiny when a Catholic captain held Mass on his ship. The transfer of 2,500 Catholics from the Royal Irish Army to England in September led to clashes with Protestant troops, some of his most reliable units refused to obey orders, and many of their officers resigned. When James demanded the repatriation of all six regiments of the Scots Brigade in January 1688, William refused but used
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#17328476312031380-430: A personal favour, which he refused. After objecting to inconsistencies in the 1681 Scottish Test Act , he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death, a charge widely regarded as driven by James's vindictiveness. Although Charles wanted to destroy Argyll's power base, he had little desire to see Argyll executed: Argyll escaped, or was allowed to escape from prison, and went into hiding in England. He eventually fled to
1495-499: A propaganda campaign in England, which presented him as a "true Stuart", but one without the faults of either James or Charles II. Much of the "spontaneous" support for William on his landing was organised by Bentinck and his agents. William's key strategic purpose was creating a defensive coalition that would block further French expansion in Europe, an objective not shared by the majority of his English supporters. In 1672, an alliance with
1610-511: A saddle on his back, neither any booted and spurred to ride him..." Taken to London, Ayloffe was executed at Temple Bar on 30 October, along with Richard Nelthorpe , a fellow Rye House conspirator captured with Monmouth. Cochrane was said to have saved himself by agreeing to support James, though a more probable explanation is his father agreed to pay a fine of £5,000. Several other prominent rebels were pardoned, including Argyll's nephew Archibald , who went on to become Bishop of Aberdeen and
1725-536: A serious effect on morale, and desertions increased. Low on supplies, the rebels decided to make for the strongly Whig city of Glasgow . Atholl was in pursuit, and the Earl of Dumbarton was stationed near Glasgow in readiness with a force of militia and regulars. Unknown to the rebels, a number of Covenanters had assembled in Wigtownshire with the intention of joining Argyll, but the preacher Alexander Peden had addressed
1840-649: A skirmish between French and Dutch naval vessels in July 1686, William concluded English neutrality was not enough and he needed their active support in the event of war. His relationship with James was affected by the fact both men relied on advisors with relatively limited views; in William's case, mainly English and Scots Presbyterian exiles, the latter with close links to the Protestant minority in Ireland, who saw Tyrconnell's policies as
1955-502: A smaller force to the Lowlands by sea to begin recruiting there. To general frustration, he abandoned this plan the next day; an enraged Cochrane said he would land on the Ayrshire coast "even if he were alone and had nothing but a hayfork in his hand". Colleagues later complained of Argyll's "peremptory" style, while he accused them of being deliberately obstructive, although he established
2070-515: A strong defensive position near Chatham Dockyard , believing the Dutch would seek to establish naval superiority before committing to a landing. While this had been the original plan, winter storms meant conditions deteriorated rapidly for those on the transports; William therefore decided to sail in convoy and avoid battle. The easterly winds that allowed the Dutch to cross prevented the Royal Navy leaving
2185-414: A thousand horses; press reports deliberately exaggerated the damage and claimed the expedition might be postponed until next spring. Dartmouth and his senior commanders considered taking advantage of this by blockading Hellevoetsluis, then decided against it, partly because the stormy weather made it dangerous but also because they could not rely on their men. William replaced his losses and departed when
2300-670: A threat to their existence. Having largely alienated his Tory support base, James depended on a small circle of Catholic converts like Sunderland , Melfort and Perth . Suspicions increased when James sought William's backing for repealing the Test Acts ; he predictably refused, further damaging their relationship. Having previously assumed he was guaranteed English support in a war with France, William now worried he might face an Anglo-French alliance, despite assurances by James he had no intention of doing so. Historians argue whether these assurances were genuine, but James did not fully appreciate
2415-489: A tiny minority confined to parts of the aristocracy and the remote Highlands. Episcopalians had regained control of the kirk in 1660, leading to a series of Presbyterian uprisings, but memories of the bitter religious conflicts of the Civil War period meant the majority preferred stability. In England and Scotland, most of those who backed James in 1685 wanted to retain existing political and religious arrangements, but this
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#17328476312032530-415: Is possible". On 4/14 October, William responded to the allegations by James in a second declaration, denying any intention to become king or to conquer England, a claim which remains controversial. The swiftness of the embarkations surprised all foreign observers. Louis had in fact delayed his threats against the Dutch until early September because he assumed it then would be too late in the season to set
2645-568: The Campbell Earls of Argyll . These dissidents held religious services in the open fields, known as conventicles , which often attracted thousands of worshippers, and were subject to increasing persecution. Despite his father 's role in the Covenanter government of 1638 to 1651, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll became a leading figure in Charles II 's Scottish administration. However, by
2760-614: The Church of Scotland , or kirk, strongly opposed Catholicism, most argued there was no religious or legal justification for taking up arms. Nevertheless, a significant minority opposed both James and those who had regained control of the kirk under the Rescissory Act 1661 . The Act also required ministers to renounce the 1638 Covenant; around 270 refused and lost their positions, the majority based in Southwest Scotland, an area dominated by
2875-555: The Dutch Republic after being accused of complicity in the 1683 Rye House Plot , an alleged attempt to assassinate both Charles and James. Here he joined a group of English and Scottish political exiles, who were protected by James' daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange . United by little more than opposition to the current regime, they included Whigs opposed to James's succession, associates of Charles's illegitimate Protestant son Monmouth , and republican radicals. Among
2990-614: The Electorate of Cologne had enabled France to bypass Dutch forward defences and nearly over-run the Republic, so ensuring an anti-French ruler was vital to prevent a repetition. As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire, Cologne's ruler was nominated by Pope Innocent XI , in conjunction with Emperor Leopold I . Both Louis and James were in dispute with Innocent over the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy; when
3105-549: The Nine Years' War . Exploiting unrest in England and claiming to be responding to the invitation, William landed in Devon with an expeditionary force on 5 November 1688. As William advanced on London, James's army disintegrated and he went into exile in France on 23 December. In April 1689, while Dutch troops occupied London, Parliament made William and Mary joint monarchs of England and Ireland. A separate but similar Scottish settlement
3220-634: The Protestant majorities in England and Scotland, as well as largely Catholic Ireland. His policies quickly eroded support, and by June 1688, dissatisfaction turned into active, yet largely unarmed, resistance. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty following the birth of his son James Francis Edward on 10 June led a group of domestic opponents to issue the Invitation to William , seeking Dutch support to remove him. The Dutch States General and William were concerned that James might support Louis XIV of France in
3335-629: The Spanish Netherlands threatened both English and Dutch trade. Although William sent James troops to help suppress the 1685 Monmouth Rebellion , their relationship deteriorated thereafter. The Franco-Dutch War , continued French expansion , and expulsion of the Huguenots meant William assumed another war was inevitable, and although the States General of the Netherlands preferred peace,
3450-497: The Thames estuary and intervening. The English fleet was outnumbered 2:1, undermanned, short of supplies, and in the wrong place. Key landing locations in the south-west and Yorkshire had been secured by sympathisers, while both army and navy were led by officers whose loyalty was questionable. Even early in 1686, foreign observers doubted the military would fight for James against a Protestant heir, and William claimed only to be securing
3565-682: The Tower of London . Two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, while the acquittal of the Seven Bishops on 30 June destroyed James's political authority. In 1677, James's elder daughter and heir Mary married her Protestant cousin William III of Orange , stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic . The two initially shared common objectives in wanting Mary to succeed her father, while French ambitions in
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3680-527: The frigate Den Briel on 16/26 October. With over 200 ships of various types carrying 40,000 men, the expeditionary force was the largest fleet assembled in European waters up to that date. After departing on 19/29 October, the fleet was scattered by a gale, forcing the Brill back to Hellevoetsluis on 21/31 October. William refused to go ashore, and the fleet reassembled, having lost only one ship but nearly
3795-502: The 'Three Questions', one being a commitment to repeal of the Test Act. In addition, local government and town corporations were purged to create an obedient electoral machine, further alienating the county gentry who had formed the majority of those who backed James in 1685. On 24 August 1688, writs were issued for a general election. The expansion of the military caused great concern, particularly in England and Scotland, where memories of
3910-504: The 1670s his power in the West Highlands was seen as a threat to royal authority, as well as royal income. In 1679, a failed conventicle rebellion resulted in the fall of his political ally John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale . This left him vulnerable to attack, which was led by Lord Advocate Rosehaugh , chief prosecutor of the 1679 rebels. He was particularly mistrusted by James, who clumsily asked him to convert to Catholicism as
4025-462: The 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis , dividing the English political class into those who wanted to 'exclude' James from the throne, mostly Whigs , and their opponents, mostly Tories . However, in 1685 many Whigs feared the consequences of bypassing the 'natural heir', while Tories were often strongly anti-Catholic, and their support assumed the continued primacy of the Church of England. Most importantly, it
4140-557: The 30,000 strong Dutch States Army . With France on the verge of war, their absence was of great concern to the States General and Bentinck hired 13,616 German mercenaries to man Dutch border fortresses, freeing elite units like the Scots Brigade for use in England. The increase could be presented as a limited precaution against French aggression, as the Dutch would typically double or triple their army strength in wartime; William instructed his experienced deputy Schomberg to prepare for
4255-415: The 600 he had expected. On 20 May the fleet crossed over to Kintyre and landed at Campbeltown , centre of Argyll's regional influence; here he had two manifestos read out, the first claiming he wanted only to retrieve his estates. Drawn up by James Stewart of Goodtrees , the second Declaration was a lengthy recital of grievances that failed to specify an alternative. This reflected the dilemma faced by
4370-753: The Amsterdam City Council agreed to back William. This was a significant decision since the Council dominated the States of Holland , the most powerful political body in the Dutch Republic which contributed nearly 60% of its budget. French troops entered the Rhineland on 27 September and in a secret session held on 29th, William argued for a pre-emptive strike , as Louis and James would "attempt to bring this state to its ultimate ruin and subjugation, as soon as they find
4485-500: The Civil War left huge resistance to standing armies . In Ireland, Talbot replaced Protestant officers with Catholics; James did the same in England, while basing the troops at Hounslow appeared a deliberate attempt to overawe Parliament. In April 1688, he ordered his Declaration of Indulgence read in every church; when the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other bishops refused, they were charged with seditious libel and confined in
4600-505: The Dutch military. After waiting several days in the Zuider Zee for a favourable wind, Argyll's forces eventually left Amsterdam at about 7 o'clock in the evening on 2 May. Blown by a gale, they arrived off the Moray Firth early on the morning of 5 May, intending to reach the western coast by passing north of Orkney . However the wind died away, a sea fog descended, and the vessels missed
4715-491: The Dutch there was no secret Anglo-French alliance against them, although his denials only increased their suspicions. By confirming France's primary objective was the Rhineland, the second allowed William to move troops from the eastern border to the coast, even though most of the new mercenaries had yet to arrive. On 22 September, the French seized over 100 Dutch ships, many owned by Amsterdam merchants; in response, on 26 September
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4830-420: The Dutch, and negating French attempts to build German alliances. William's envoy Johann von Görtz assured Leopold English Catholics would not be persecuted and intervention was to elect a free Parliament, not depose James, a convenient fiction that allowed him to remain neutral. Although his English supporters considered a token force sufficient, William assembled 260 transport ships and 15,000 men, nearly half
4945-526: The Highlands with his own clansmen, rather than crossing the River Clyde , although Argyll's own account claimed he was abandoned by his Lowland colleagues. He set off north with a small group of close associates, but after a few miles the group broke up; Campbell of Auchinbreck tried to continue to Argyllshire to raise further men while Argyll went south, accompanied only by Major Fullarton. He disguised himself as
5060-624: The Presbyterian heartland of Ayrshire , claiming to have hundreds of potential recruits, while some of the men recruited on Islay had already deserted. Argyll ordered his forces to Tarbert, Kintyre , to link up with Campbell clan levies, where on 27 May they were joined by 1,200 men under his son Charles and Sir Duncan Campbell of Auchinbreck, bringing their total strength to around 2,500. The rebel infantry were organised into three regiments, with Ayloffe, Campbell of Auchinbreck and Robert Elphinstone of Lapness as colonels. One of Auchinbreck's officers
5175-510: The States General authorised an additional 9,000 sailors and 21 new warships. The success of William's invasion would partly depend on domestic support, and at the end of April William met with Edward Russell , unofficial envoy for the Whig opposition. In a conversation recorded by Gilbert Burnet , he requested a formal invitation asking him to "rescue the nation and the religion", with a projected date of end September. William subsequently claimed he
5290-575: The States General treated the operation as a private affair, allowing William use of the Dutch States Navy and army. The nominal commander was Arthur Herbert , but operational control remained with Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Vice-Admiral Philips van Almonde . Accompanied by Willem Bastiaensz Schepers , the Rotterdam shipping magnate who provided financing, William boarded
5405-570: The Test Acts, unlike James who offered tolerance in return for repeal. In April 1688, Louis XIV announced tariffs on Dutch herring imports, along with plans to support the Royal Navy in the English Channel . James immediately denied making any such request, but fearing it was the prelude to a formal alliance, the Dutch began preparing a military intervention. On the pretext of needing additional resources to deal with French privateers , in July
5520-522: The accession of the Roman Catholic James to the throne. Argyll, chief of Clan Campbell , planned to raise several thousand men from his own estates and expected to receive additional support from Presbyterian dissidents. He sailed from Holland on 2 May with around 300 men, but on landing in Scotland attracted few recruits. Hampered by Argyll's inexperience as a commander and disagreements amongst
5635-490: The adverse winds and tides. Argyll%27s Rising Argyll's Rising , also known as Argyll's Rebellion , was an attempt in June 1685 to overthrow James II and VII . Led by Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll , the rising was intended to tie down Royal forces in Scotland while a simultaneous rebellion under James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth began in England. Both rebellions were backed by dissident Protestants opposed to
5750-455: The banker Francisco Lopes Suasso . The biggest concern for Holland was the potential impact on the Dutch economy and politics of William becoming ruler of England; the claim he had no intention of "removing the King from the throne" was not believed. These fears were arguably justified; William's access to English resources permanently diminished Amsterdam's power within the Republic and its status as
5865-527: The death of Charles II in February 1685, and the accession of James. It made sense to co-ordinate with Monmouth, but Argyll was deeply suspicious of his fellow exile, and had to be persuaded to meet him by Hume and Robert Ferguson . In early March 1685, Monmouth came to Amsterdam; they agreed he would take responsibility for England, the south of Ireland, and foreign relations, while Argyll would deal with Scotland and northern Ireland. To ensure co-ordination between
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#17328476312035980-471: The distrust caused by his domestic policies. In August 1687, William's cousin de Zuylestein travelled to England with condolences on the death of Mary of Modena 's mother, allowing him to make contact with the political opposition. Throughout 1688, his English supporters provided William detailed information on public opinion and developments, very little of which was intercepted. In October 1687, after fourteen years of marriage and multiple miscarriages, it
6095-586: The effects of the Rising were hundreds of Covenanters already held in Government prisons: although they had not taken part in the rebellion, their treatment became substantially worse, and many were also transported. However, the Rising was generally less severely punished than the Monmouth Rebellion, possibly as the authorities recognised many of Argyll's men had been bound by feudal obligations to follow him. Despite
6210-523: The election of the Presbyterian John Shorter as Lord Mayor of London in 1687, he insisted on complying with the Test Act, reportedly because of a 'distrust of the King's favour...thus encouraging that which His Majesties whole Endeavours were intended to disannull.' To ensure a compliant Parliament, James required potential MPs to be approved by their local Lord Lieutenant ; eligibility for both offices required positive answers in writing to
6325-654: The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Other definitions, perhaps those with a more social or global interest, extend the period further to, for example, from the Stuart Restoration in 1660 to the end of the Georgian era . Possibly the earliest proponent of the long eighteenth century was Sir John Robert Seeley , who in 1883 defined the eighteenth century as "the period which begins with the Revolution of 1688 and ends with
6440-523: The establishment of the "manifestly illegal" commission for ecclesiastical causes and its use to suspend the Bishop of London and to remove the Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford . William also condemned James's attempt to repeal the Test Acts and the penal laws through pressuring individuals and waging an assault on parliamentary boroughs, as well as his purging of the judiciary. James's attempt to pack Parliament
6555-453: The event, a disastrous night march on 17 June resulted in the dispersal of the remaining forces, despite Rumbold and Argyll's efforts to keep order; Rumbold became separated from the main group of insurgents, and most of the remaining Highlanders deserted. Argyll held a final conference with Cochrane at an inn in the village of Old Kilpatrick by which point he was apparently "scarcely able to speak". Cochrane allegedly advised him to return to
6670-672: The event, he did not sail until nearly a month later. This allowed James to focus on Argyll, while a militia force under the Marquess of Atholl was ordered to occupy his proposed recruiting area of Argyllshire. Cochrane chaired a further meeting in April attended by Argyll and his third son Charles . While it was agreed Argyll should lead the expedition, he was forced to accept a Council that would approve all major decisions. Weapons to equip 20,000 men were loaded on three ships, Anna , David and Sophia , along with around 300 men, mainly Scots serving in
6785-419: The expedition in motion anyway, if their reaction proved negative; typically, such an enterprise would take at least some months. Being ready after the last week of September / first week of October would normally have meant that the Dutch could have profited from the last spell of good weather, as the autumn storms tend to begin in the third week of that month. However, this year they came early. For three weeks,
6900-529: The expedition was that day openly approved by the States of Holland; the same day James issued a proclamation to the English nation that it should prepare for a Dutch invasion to ward off conquest. On 30 September/10 October ( Julian /Gregorian calendars) William issued the Declaration of The Hague (actually written by Fagel), of which 60,000 copies of the English translation by Gilbert Burnet were distributed after
7015-517: The formation of the Association of Protestant Officers, which included senior veterans like Charles Trelawny , John Churchill , and Percy Kirke . On 14 August, Churchill offered his support to William, helping convince him it was safe to risk an invasion; although James was aware of the conspiracy, he took no action. One reason may have been fears over the impact on the army; with a notional strength of 34,000, it looked impressive on paper but morale
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#17328476312037130-647: The function of Parliament was simply to obey. Disputes over the relationship between king and Parliament led to the War of the Three Kingdoms and continued after the 1660 Stuart Restoration . Charles II came to rely on the Royal Prerogative since measures passed in this way could be withdrawn when he decided, rather than Parliament. However, it could not be used for major legislation or taxation. Concern that Charles II intended to create an absolute monarchy led to
7245-517: The gatherings and reminded them of Argyll and Monmouth's role in previous repression. On 16 June the rebels, reduced to less than 1,000 by desertion, crossed the Leven near Dumbarton . On the Stirling road they sighted a government detachment and Argyll, Cochrane and Ayloffe were in favour of an immediate attack, hoping a quick victory would rally support: Hume, however, insisted they continue to Glasgow. In
7360-531: The idea. On 11 June, the same day Monmouth finally landed in Dorset , the Council decided to begin a march to the Lowlands, leaving a garrison at Eilean Dearg under Elphinstone of Lapness. Shortly after, Elphinstone was attacked by a Royal Navy squadron including the frigates Kingfisher , Falcon , Mermaid . The garrison abandoned the fort, along with their supplies and the hostages from Orkney, rejoining their colleagues near Loch Long . News of this disaster had
7475-622: The inheritance of his wife Mary. While still a dangerous undertaking, the invasion was less risky than it seemed. The Dutch preparations, though carried out with great speed, could not remain secret. The English envoy Ignatius White , the Marquess d'Albeville, warned his country: "an absolute conquest is intended under the specious and ordinary pretences of religion, liberty, property and a free Parliament". Louis threatened an immediate declaration of war if William proceeded and sent James 300,000 livres. Embarkations, begun on 22 September ( Gregorian calendar ), had been completed on 8 October, and
7590-437: The interim, the main invasion force sailed southwards to Islay ; Argyll decided to land the majority of his troops by night and surprise Atholl's militia, disembarking at one o'clock in the morning of the 17th. Atholl's men escaped to Kintyre some three hours earlier and the rebels landed at Kilarrow unopposed. Although the well-equipped rebel soldiers made a good impression, Argyll only secured 80 local recruits rather than
7705-533: The invasion fleet was prevented by adverse south-westerly gales from departing from the naval port of Hellevoetsluis and Catholics all over the Netherlands and the British kingdoms held prayer sessions that this "popish wind" might endure. However, on 14/24 October, it became the famous " Protestant Wind " by turning to the east. Although most of the warships were provided by the Admiralty of Amsterdam , officially
7820-486: The killing of 2,000 Vaudois Protestants in 1686, it led to fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation. These concerns were reinforced by events in Ireland; the Lord Deputy , the Earl of Tyrconnell , wanted to create a Catholic establishment able to survive James's death, which meant replacing Protestant officials at a pace that was inherently destabilising. The majority of those who backed James in 1685 did so because they wanted stability and
7935-427: The land war with France, with the Royal Navy taking the lead at sea. This was a significant factor in the Dutch Republic being overtaken as the leading European maritime power by Britain during the War of the Spanish Succession . Despite his Catholicism , James became king in 1685 with widespread backing in all three of his kingdoms. In June 1685, he quickly crushed Protestant risings in Scotland and England , but
8050-406: The landing in England, in which he assured that his only aim was to maintain the Protestant religion, install a free parliament and investigate the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales. He would respect the position of James. William went on to condemn James's advisers for overturning the religion, laws, and liberties of England, Scotland, and Ireland by the use of the suspending and dispensing power;
8165-467: The likelihood seemed to diminish. With the Dutch on the verge of war with France, he did not believe the States General would allow William to make the attempt; if they did, his army and navy were strong enough to defeat it. Reasonable in theory, his reliance on the loyalty and efficiency of the military proved deeply flawed. Both the army and the navy remained overwhelmingly Protestant and anti-Catholic; in July, only personal intervention by James prevented
8280-531: The majority accepted he was correct. This view was widely shared throughout Protestant Europe; in October 1685, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg renounced his French alliance for one with the Dutch. In July 1686, other Protestant states formed the anti-French League of Augsburg , with Dutch support; securing or neutralising English resources, especially the Royal Navy , now became key to both sides. Following
8395-655: The military or holding public office, and land reform. In 1600, 90% of Irish land was owned by Catholics but following a series of confiscations during the 17th century, this had dropped to 22% in 1685. Catholic and Protestant merchants in Dublin and elsewhere objected to commercial restrictions placing them at a disadvantage to their English competitors. While James's supporters viewed hereditary succession as more important than his personal Catholicism, they opposed his policies of 'Tolerance' under which Catholics would be allowed to hold public office and engage in public life. Opposition
8510-458: The most prominent were the moderate Whig Lord Melville , Sir Patrick Hume , who defended many of the 1679 rebels, Sir John Cochrane of Ochiltree , and former Cromwellian soldier Richard Rumbold , a leading member of the Rye House Plot. Argyll began planning an insurrection in Scotland in early 1684, initially aimed at regaining his lands and titles. Although he sought funding of £30,000, he
8625-550: The mottoes " For the Protestant Religion " and " Against Popery , Prelacy and Erastianism ". Rumbold and Ayloffe were both given colonelcies of regiments, of horse and foot respectively, formed from recruits enlisted in Campbeltown. The original plan was for a quick descent on the Lowlands to mobilise Covenanter support before government troops could prevent it. The idea seemed validated when George Barclay arrived from
8740-401: The number of recruits. Hume wanted to make for the Lowlands, while Argyll insisted they deal with Atholl first; they compromised by sending Cochrane to Renfrewshire with 200 men. Despite routing a troop of militia near Greenock , he found little support for the Rising, and on his return supported Argyll's view. Argyll established a base at the old castle of Eilean Dearg, Loch Riddon , which
8855-493: The occasion". This was accepted by the States, with the objective left deliberately vague, other than making the English "King and Nation live in a good relation, and useful to their friends and allies, and especially to this State". Following their approval, the Amsterdam financial market raised a loan of four million guilders in only three days, with further financing coming from various sources, including two million guilders from
8970-607: The old Elector died in June 1688, Innocent and Leopold ignored the French candidate in favour of Joseph Clemens of Bavaria . After 1678, France continued its expansion into the Rhineland , including the 1683 to 1684 War of the Reunions , additional territorial demands in the Palatinate , and construction of forts at Landau and Traben-Trarbach . This presented an existential threat to Habsburg dominance, guaranteeing Leopold's support for
9085-466: The opportunity to purge those considered unreliable, a total of 104 officers and 44 soldiers. Some may have been Williamite agents, such as Colonel Belasyse , a Protestant with over 15 years of service who returned to his family estates in Yorkshire and made contact with Danby. The promotion of Catholic former Brigade officers like Thomas Buchan and Alexander Cannon to command positions led to
9200-506: The other vessels to prevent conspiracy. A lack of funds meant that excluding fireships and light scouting vessels, only 16 warships were available in early October, all third rates or fourth rates that were short of both men and supplies. While the Downs was the best place to intercept a cross-Channel attack, it was also vulnerable to a surprise assault, even for ships fully manned and adequately provisioned. Instead, James placed his ships in
9315-695: The passage between Orkney and Shetland. They anchored in Swanbister Bay on Orkney's south coast and Argyll's chamberlain William Spence, who had an uncle living in Kirkwall , got permission from Argyll to go ashore to obtain a pilot. Disaster struck when Spence and his companion Dr. Blackader were arrested in Kirkwall, alerting the authorities to the rebels' presence; Hume proposed rescuing their colleagues, while Argyll and Cochrane suggested taking hostages. After this
9430-493: The peace of 1815". The Institute of Historical Research hosts a seminar series on "British History in the Long 18th Century". This European history –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Glorious Revolution The Glorious Revolution was the deposition of James II and VII in November 1688. He was replaced by his daughter Mary II , and her Dutch husband, William III of Orange , who
9545-408: The population and Nonconformists 4.4%. Both groups were divided; since private worship was generally tolerated, Catholic moderates feared greater visibility would provoke a backlash. Among Nonconformists, while Quakers and Congregationalists supported repeal of the Test Acts, the majority wanted to amend the 1662 Act of Uniformity and be allowed back into the Church of England. When James ensured
9660-495: The ports of Plymouth and Torbay. In the north, a force organised by Belasyse and Danby prepared to seize York , its most important city, and Hull , its largest port. Herbert had been replaced by Dartmouth as commander of the fleet when he defected in June but many captains owed him their appointments and were of doubtful loyalty. Dartmouth suspected Berkeley and Grafton of plotting to overthrow him; to monitor them, he placed their ships next to his and minimised contact between
9775-486: The primacy of the Protestant Church of England and Church of Scotland . When his policies appeared to undermine the existing political and religious order, the result was to alienate his English and Scottish supporters and destabilise Ireland. Stuart political ideology derived from James VI and I , who in 1603 had created a vision of a centralised state, run by a monarch whose authority came from God , and where
9890-401: The prospect of a Catholic successor, the " Invitation to William " was quickly drafted by Henry Sydney , later described by Whig historians as "the great wheel on which the Revolution rolled". The signatories provided no considerable political power, but they were selected to make it seem like they represented a broad spectrum, and provided William with an essential propaganda tool. Danby ,
10005-465: The rebel leaders, and pursued by government militia under the Marquess of Atholl , the rebels began to disperse in mid June after an abortive invasion of Lowland Scotland. Most of their leaders were captured, including Argyll, who was executed on 30 June. In February 1685, James II and VII , a Catholic , came to power with widespread support in all three of his kingdoms. In largely Catholic Ireland , this
10120-782: The rebel leadership; the Presbyterian dissidents, or Cameronians , who were their most likely recruits wanted to overthrow the kirk establishment, thereby guaranteeing opposition from the moderate majority. The Cameronians were already deeply suspicious of Argyll, who had been part of the administration that persecuted them in the 1670s, and since the Declaration omitted any mention of the 1638 Covenant, they withheld their support. Argyll mustered his forces in Kintyre on 22 May. Three understrength companies of recruits had followed from Islay; more were formed using new volunteers from Kintyre, who were issued with Dutch weapons, and given colours written with
10235-506: The regulars took several casualties including the wounding of their commander Captain William Cleland . On moving off under cover of darkness the rebels discovered that the dragoons had fled towards Kilmarnock . Hume later wrote "wer I to choose 75 men upon my life’s hazard; I would not reject one of that 75 (and no more ther was) that came of that night". On 20 June Cochrane received word that Argyll had been taken prisoner, and released
10350-550: The remaining rebels from service, telling them to escape as best they could. Cochrane was captured a week later in his uncle's house in Renfrew . Ayloffe was also taken prisoner, unsuccessfully attempting suicide shortly afterwards. Rumbold was intercepted by militia on the night of 20/21 June near Lesmahagow ; on being called to surrender, he was supposed to have said that he "came there to fight for death, not for life". He killed one assailant, wounded two, and captured only when his horse
10465-418: The rule of law, qualities frequently undermined by his actions. After suspending Parliament in November 1685, he sought to rule by decree; although the principle was not disputed, the widening of its scope caused considerable concern, particularly when judges who disagreed with its application were dismissed. He then alienated many by perceived attacks on the established church; Henry Compton, Bishop of London ,
10580-399: The threat to the Dutch. Instead, Louis attempted to intimidate the States General, and on 9 September, his envoy D'Avaux handed them two letters. The first warned an attack on James meant war with France, the second any interference with French operations in Germany would end with the destruction of the Dutch state. Both misfired; convinced Louis was trying to drag him into war, James told
10695-426: The two, a leading Scots exile, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun , agreed to accompany Monmouth, while the English rebels Rumbold and John Ayloffe went with Argyll. Most significantly, Monmouth undertook not to declare himself king unless proposed by Parliament, and to depart no more than six days after Argyll. The Scottish landing was intended to be a diversion, the main thrust being Monmouth's invasion of England, but in
10810-451: The wind changed on 1/11 November, this time heading for Harwich where Bentinck had prepared a landing site. It has been suggested this was a feint to divert some of Dartmouth's ships north, which proved to be the case and when the wind shifted again, the Dutch armada sailed south into the Strait of Dover . In doing so, they twice passed the English fleet, which was unable to intercept because of
10925-451: The world's leading commercial and financial centre. Neither James nor Sunderland trusted Louis, correctly suspecting that his support would continue only so long as it coincided with French interests, while Mary of Modena claimed his warnings were simply an attempt to drag England into an unwanted alliance. As a former naval commander, James appreciated the difficulties of a successful invasion, even in good weather, and as autumn approached,
11040-588: Was Robert Duncanson , later notorious for his role in the Glencoe Massacre , whose father was minister at Kilmartin . Lacking confirmation of Monmouth's landing, divisions emerged within the rebel leadership. With their estates occupied by Atholl's militia, Argyll was unable to raise his tenants, and felt the Campbell levies would not fight while their homes remained at risk. He first decided to march on Inveraray , but under pressure from his Council agreed to send
11155-415: Was 'forced' to take control of the conspiracy when Russell warned him the English would rise against James even without his help, and he feared this would lead to a republic, depriving his wife of her inheritance. Although this version is strongly disputed, Zuylestein returned to England in June, ostensibly to congratulate James on his new son, in reality to co-ordinate with William's supporters. Spurred by
11270-558: Was advised it was better not to raise them. Widespread discontent and growing hostility to the Stuart regime were particularly apparent in North-East and South-West England, the two landing places identified by William. A Tory whose brother Jonathan was one of the Seven Bishops, Trelawny's commitment confirmed support from a powerful and well-connected West Country bloc, allowing access to
11385-410: Was also James's nephew. The two ruled as joint monarchs of England , Scotland , and Ireland until Mary's death in 1694, when William became ruler in his own right. Jacobitism as a political movement persisted into the late 18th century. William's invasion was the last successful invasion of England . Despite his own Catholicism , James became king in February 1685 with widespread backing from
11500-517: Was announced the Queen was pregnant, Melfort immediately declaring it was a boy. When James then wrote to Mary urging her to convert to Catholicism, it convinced many he was seeking a Catholic heir, one way or the other and may have been a deciding factor in whether to invade. Early in 1688, a pamphlet circulated in England written by Dutch Grand Pensionary Gaspar Fagel ; this guaranteed William's support for freedom of worship for Dissenters and retaining
11615-479: Was brittle while many were untrained or lacked weapons. It also had to fill policing roles previously delegated to the militia, which had been deliberately allowed to decay; most of the 4,000 regular troops brought from Scotland in October had to be stationed in London to keep order. In October, attempts were made to restore the militia but many members were reportedly so angry at the changes made to local corporations, James
11730-461: Was due to hopes he would restore his co-religionists to their lands and offices; in Protestant Scotland and England , it was driven by a desire for stability. The Wars of the Three Kingdoms meant many feared the consequences of bypassing the 'natural heir', especially as James had yet to produce a legitimate son and was expected to be succeeded by his Protestant daughter Mary . Although
11845-516: Was eventually agreed, a landing party took 7 local gentry prisoner; Argyll wrote to the Bishop of Orkney proposing an exchange, but received no response. The rebels and their hostages continued west, reaching the Sound of Mull by the evening of 11 May. On arriving at the Isle of Mull , Charles Campbell was sent ashore to Lorne , where he attempted to raise local heritors who held their land from his father. In
11960-582: Was forced into exile less than four years later. Modern historians argue James failed to appreciate how much Royal power relied on support from the landed gentry , and the loss of that support fatally damaged his regime. The vast majority of the gentry in England and Scotland were Protestant , while even in largely Catholic Ireland a disproportionate number were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland . Although willing to accept James's personal religious beliefs, his backers did so only so long as he maintained
12075-405: Was in danger of removing "the last and great remedy for all those evils". "Therefore", William continued, "we have thought fit to go over to England, and to carry over with us a force sufficient, by the blessing of God, to defend us from the violence of those evil Counsellors ... this our Expedition is intended for no other design, but to have, a free and lawful Parliament assembled as soon as
12190-401: Was led by devout Anglicans who argued that the measures he proposed were incompatible with the oath he had sworn as king to uphold the supremacy of the Church of England. According to opponents, demanding that Parliament approve his measures James was not only to be breaking his own word but requiring others to do the same. Parliament refused to comply, despite being "the most Loyal Parliament
12305-512: Was made in June. Domestically, the Revolution confirmed the primacy of Parliament over the Crown in both England and Scotland. In terms of external policy, until his death in 1702, William combined the roles of Dutch stadtholder and British monarch. Both states thus became allies in resisting French expansion, an alliance which persisted for much of the 18th century, despite differing objectives. Under William's leadership, Dutch resources were focused on
12420-454: Was not the case in Ireland. While he was guaranteed support from the Catholic majority, James was also popular among Irish Protestants, since the Church of Ireland depended on Royal support for its survival, while Ulster was dominated by Presbyterians who supported his tolerance policies. However, religion was only one factor; of equal concern for Catholics were laws barring them from serving in
12535-539: Was only able to raise £10,000, most of it supplied by English sympathisers, including Ann Smith , Patience Ward , William Rumbold and John Locke . This was used to purchase military equipment in Amsterdam, concealed as destined for the Venetian Republic ; these precautions proved of little value, since the Scottish government were kept informed of the plot from its beginning. Preparations became more urgent following
12650-565: Was politically short-sighted, since it rewarded those who joined the 1685 rebellions and undermined his supporters. Demanding tolerance for Catholics was also badly timed. In October 1685 Louis XIV of France issued the Edict of Fontainebleau revoking the 1598 Edict of Nantes which had given French Protestants the right to practise their religion; over the next four years, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 went into exile, 40,000 of whom settled in London. Combined with Louis's expansionist policies and
12765-475: Was seen as a short-term issue; James was 52, his marriage to Mary of Modena remained childless after 11 years, and the heirs were his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne . There was much greater sympathy in Scotland for a 'Stuart heir', and the 1681 Succession Act confirmed the duty of all to support him, 'regardless of religion.' Over 95 percent of Scots belonged to the national church or kirk; even other Protestant sects were banned, and by 1680, Catholics were
12880-432: Was shot from under him: he was brought to Edinburgh seriously wounded. While it had been feared "Argyll might have given much trouble", the ease with which the Rising was defeated surprised contemporaries. Lord Fountainhall commented on the "sillinesse" of its end, noting "every one reputed Argile valiant and witty, and Sir John Cochrane neither, and yet Argile sneaks away from the hazard, and Sir John fights stoutly like
12995-415: Was strengthened by additional earthworks ; once completed, his ships unloaded their weapons and supplies. Rumbold and his cavalry, plus 300 infantry under Major Henderson, were sent to hold Glendaruel , which ran into Loch Riddon from the north. Rumbold also seized Ardkinglas Castle near Inveraray; Argyll saw this as an opportunity to capture the whole of Argyllshire, but other members of the Council vetoed
13110-509: Was suspended for refusing to ban John Sharp from preaching after he gave an anti-Catholic sermon. He often made things worse by political clumsiness; to general fury, the Ecclesiastical Commission of 1686 established to discipline the Church of England included suspected Catholics like the Earl of Huntingdon . This was combined with an inability to accept opposition; in April 1687, he ordered Magdalen College, Oxford , to elect
13225-415: Was tried, convicted of treason on 26th and executed the same day, allegedly to ensure he did not die of his wounds first. Argyll, who sharply criticised Hume and Cochrane in his final letters, wrote "Poor Rumbold was a great support to me and a brave man and died Christianly." His speech on the scaffold was widely printed at the time and quoted afterwards, especially the phrase "none comes into this world with
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