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75-781: Lidzbarski was born in Russian Poland to a Hasidic Eastern Jewish family, and from 1889 to 1892 studied Semitic philology in Berlin . There he converted to evangelical Christianity and changed his first name to "Mark". In February 1896, he received his doctorate in Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Kiel . In 1907, he succeeded William Ahlwardt as professor at the University of Greifswald , and in 1917, became professor in Göttingen as successor to Enno Littmann . From 1912, he

150-759: A West Slavic ethnic group and nation who share a common history , culture , the Polish language and are identified with the country of Poland in Central Europe . The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland, regardless of heritage or ethnicity. The majority of Poles adhere to Roman Catholicism . The population of self-declared Poles in Poland

225-508: A namestnichestvo under the control of a namiestnik until 1875, when it became a Guberniya . The government of Congress Poland was outlined in the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815. The emperor of Russia was the official head of state, considered the king of Poland , with the local government headed by the viceroy of the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : Namiestnik ), Council of State and Administrative Council , in addition to

300-525: A sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative divisions were reorganized. It was sufficiently distinct that its name remained in official Russian use, although in the later years of Russian rule it was replaced with the " Vistula Land " (Russian: Привислинский Край). Following the defeat of the November Uprising its separate institutions and administrative arrangements were abolished as part of increased Russification to be more closely integrated with

375-523: A result of the efforts of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , a Pole who aimed to resurrect the Polish state in alliance with Russia . The Kingdom of Poland was one of the few contemporary constitutional monarchies in Europe, with the emperor of Russia serving as the self-proclaimed king of Poland . Theoretically, the Polish Kingdom in its 1815 form was a semi-autonomous state in personal union with Russia through

450-502: A separate language. The Goral people in the mountainous south use their own nonstandard dialect, accenting and different intonation . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the border changes and population transfers that followed the Second World War – forced expulsions and resettlement during that period contributed to the country's current linguistic homogeneity. The culture of Poland

525-690: A small part of the Grodno District of Belarus. The Kingdom of Poland effectively came to an end with the Great Retreat of Russian forces in 1915 and was succeeded by the Government General of Warsaw , established by the Germans. In 1917, part of this was renamed as the short-lived Kingdom of Poland , a client state of the Central Powers , which had a Regency Council instead of a king. Although

600-643: Is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year history , and forms an important constituent in the Western civilisation . Strong ties with the Latinate world and the Roman Catholic faith also shaped Poland's cultural identity. Officially, the national and state symbol is the white-tailed eagle ( bielik ) embedded on the Coat of arms of Poland ( godło ). The national colours are white and red, which appropriately appear on

675-610: Is estimated at 37,394,000 out of an overall population of 38,512,000 (based on the 2011 census), of whom 36,522,000 declared Polish alone. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora (the Polonia ) exists throughout Eurasia , the Americas , and Australasia . Today, the largest urban concentrations of Poles are within the Warsaw metropolitan area and the Katowice urban area . Ethnic Poles are considered to be

750-545: Is hearty and Poles are one of the more obese nations in Europe – approximately 58% of the adult population was overweight in 2019, above the EU average. According to data from 2017, meat consumption per capita in Poland was one of the highest in the world, with pork being the most in demand. Alcohol consumption is relatively moderate compared to other European states; popular alcoholic beverages include Polish-produced beer , vodka and ciders . Poles have traditionally adhered to

825-460: Is mostly remembered. The first Polish steam mill was built in 1828 in Warsaw - Solec ; the first textile machine was installed in 1829. Greater use of machines led to production in the form of workshops. The government was also encouraging foreign specialists, mostly Germans , to upkeep larger establishments, or to undertake production. By 1887, 550 of the 29,000 Prussian landowners in Poland were manufacturers. The Germans were also relieved of

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900-698: Is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders. There is a notable Polish diaspora in the United States , Brazil , and Canada . France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century. In the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled in France , mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation (1939–1945) or Communism (1945/1947–1989). In

975-533: The Administrative Council . He could veto the councils' decisions; other than that, his decisions had to be countersigned by the appropriate government minister . The viceroy exercised broad powers and could nominate candidates for most senior government posts (ministers, senators , judges of the High Tribunal, councilors of state, referendaries , bishops , and archbishops ). He had no competence in

1050-567: The Catholic Church , in 966 CE, marked Poland's advent to the community of Western Christendom . However, throughout its existence, the Polish state followed a tolerant policy towards minorities resulting in numerous ethnic and religious identities of the Poles, such as Polish Jews . The Polish endonym Polacy is derived from the Western Polans , a Lechitic tribe which inhabited lands around

1125-647: The European Union in 2004 and with the opening of the EU's labor market; an approximate number of 2 million, primarily young, Poles taking up jobs abroad. It is estimated that over half a million Polish people went to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work freely throughout the EU where they have had full working rights since Poland's EU accession in 2004 . The Polish community in Norway has increased substantially and has grown to

1200-627: The Grand Duchy of Posen outside of German Confederation , but later was demoted to merely a Prussian province (the Province of Posen ), and was subsequently annexed in 1866 into the North German Confederation , the predecessor of the German Empire . The Congress Kingdom of Poland was theoretically granted considerable political autonomy by the liberal constitution . However, its rulers,

1275-524: The January Uprising broke out but lasted only two years before being crushed. As a direct result, any remaining separate status of the kingdom was removed and the political entity was directly incorporated into the Russian Empire. The unofficial name Privislinsky Krai ( Russian : Привислинский Край ), i.e., 'Vistula Land', replaced 'Kingdom of Poland' as the area's official name and the area became

1350-783: The Kingdom of Poland , was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state , a successor to Napoleon 's Duchy of Warsaw . It was established when the French ceded a part of Polish territory to the Russian Empire following France's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars . In 1915, during World War I , it was replaced by the German -controlled nominal Regency Kingdom until Poland regained independence in 1918. Following

1425-491: The Migration Period , central Europe was becoming increasingly settled by the early Slavs (500–700 AD). They organized into tribal units , of which the larger ones further west were later known as the Polish tribes ( Lechites ); the names of many tribes are found on the list compiled by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer in the 9th century. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along

1500-602: The Napoleonic wars . The kingdom was created from parts of the Polish territory that had been partitioned between Austria and Prussia which had been transformed into the Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807. After Napoleon's 1812 defeat, the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw was dependent on Russia. Prussia insisted on the duchy being completely eliminated. After Russian troops reached Paris in 1812, Tsar Alexander I intended to annex

1575-404: The Polish alphabet , which is the basic Latin alphabet with the addition of six diacritic marks , totalling 32 letters. Bearing relation to Czech and Slovak , it has been profoundly influenced by Latin , German and other languages over the course of history. Poland is linguistically homogeneous – nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their mother tongue. Polish-speakers use

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1650-410: The Polish nobility deeply valued personal freedom. In reality, the kings had absolute power and the formal title of Autocrat , and wanted no restrictions on their rule. All opposition to the emperor of Russia was suppressed and the law was disregarded at will by Russian officials. Though the absolute rule demanded by Russia was difficult to establish due to Poland's liberal traditions and institutions,

1725-678: The River Warta in Greater Poland region from the mid-6th century onward. The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Indo European *pleh₂- , which means flat or flatland and corresponds to the topography of a region that the Western Polans initially settled. The prefix pol- is used in most world languages when referring to Poles (Spanish polaco , Italian polacche , French polonais , German Pole ). Among other foreign exonyms for

1800-497: The Russian emperors , generally disregarded any restrictions on their power. It was, therefore, little more than a puppet state in a personal union with the Russian Empire. The autonomy was severely curtailed following uprisings in 1830–31 and 1863 , as the country became governed by viceroys , and later divided into governorates (provinces). Thus, from the start, Polish autonomy remained little more than fiction. The capital

1875-610: The Sejm . In theory, Congress Poland possessed one of the most liberal governments of the time in Europe , but in practice, the area was a puppet state of the Russian Empire. The liberal provisions of the constitution, and the scope of the autonomy, were often disregarded by the Russian officials. Polish remained an official language until the mid-1860s when it was replaced by Russian. This resulted in bilingual street signs and documents, however,

1950-487: The Warsaw Military District ( Polish : Warszawski Okręg Wojskowy , Russian : Варшавский Военный Округ ). The governor-general answered directly to the emperor and exercised much broader powers than had the "namiestnik". In particular, he controlled all the military forces in the region and oversaw the judicial systems (he could impose death sentences without trial). He could also issue " declarations with

2025-533: The end of Communism in Poland in 1989 . In Brazil, the majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State. Smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states of Rio Grande do Sul , Espírito Santo and São Paulo (state) . The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world (after Chicago) and Polish music , dishes and culture are quite common in the region. A recent large migration of Poles took place following Poland's accession to

2100-477: The flag of Poland ( flaga ), banners, cockades and memorabilia. Personal achievement and education plays an important role in Polish society today. In 2018, the Programme for International Student Assessment ranked Poland 11th in the world for mathematics, science and reading. Education has been of prime interest to Poland since the early 12th century, particularly for its noble classes . In 1364, King Casimir

2175-412: The mazurka , krakowiak and polonaise , were popularized by Polish composer Frédéric Chopin , and they soon spread across Europe and elsewhere. Latin songs and religious hymns such as Gaude Mater Polonia and Bogurodzica were once chanted in churches and during patriotic festivities, but the tradition has faded. According to a 2020 study, Poland ranks 12th globally on a list of countries which read

2250-596: The partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century, Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation for 123 years. The territory, with its native population, was split among the Habsburg monarchy , the Kingdom of Prussia , and the Russian Empire. After 1804, an equivalent to Congress Poland within the Austrian Empire was the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , also commonly referred to as " Austrian Poland ". The area incorporated into Prussia initially also held autonomy as

2325-548: The Christian faith; an overwhelming majority belongs to the Roman Catholic Church , with 87.5% of Poles in 2011 identifying as Roman Catholic . According to Poland's Constitution , freedom of religion is ensured to everyone. It also allows for national and ethnic minorities to have the right to establish educational and cultural institutions, institutions designed to protect religious identity, as well as to participate in

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2400-543: The Congress, Russia gained a larger share of Poland (with Warsaw) and, after crushing an insurrection in 1831 , the Congress Kingdom's autonomy was abolished. Poles faced confiscation of property, deportation, forced military service, and the closure of their own universities. The Congress was important enough in the creation of the state to cause the new country to be informally named for it. The kingdom lost its status as

2475-698: The Great founded the Kraków Academy , which would become Jagiellonian University , the second-oldest institution of higher learning in Central Europe. People of Polish birth have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics both in Poland and abroad, among them Vitello , Marie Skłodowska–Curie , Rudolf Modrzejewski , Rudolf Weigl , Bronisław Malinowski , Stefan Banach , Stanisław Ulam , Leonid Hurwicz , Benoit Mandelbrot and Alfred Tarski . Poland's folk music , especially

2550-506: The Kingdom of Poland lost its semi-independent status and was integrated much more closely with the Russian Empire. This was formalized through the issuing of the Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland by the Emperor in 1832, which abolished the constitution, army and legislative assembly. Over the next 30 years, a series of measures bound Congress Poland ever more closely to Russia. In 1863

2625-620: The Polish authorities in 1995, are the Native Polish Church ( Rodzimy Kościół Polski ), which represents a pagan tradition going back to Władysław Kołodziej 's 1921 Holy Circle of Worshippers of Światowid ( Święte Koło Czcicieli Światowida ), and the Polish Slavic Church ( Polski Kościół Słowiański ). There is also the Native Faith Association ( Zrzeszenie Rodzimej Wiary , ZRW ), founded in 1996. Polish people are

2700-476: The Polish people are Lithuanian Lenkai ; Hungarian Lengyelek ; Turkish Leh ; Armenian : Լեհաստան Lehastan ; and Persian : لهستان ( Lahestān ). These stem from Lechia , the ancient name for Poland, or from the tribal Lendians . Their names are equally derived from the Old Polish term lęda , meaning plain or field. Slavs have been in the territory of modern-day Poland for over 1500 years. During

2775-452: The Republic of Poland can register their institution with the Ministry of Interior and Administration creating a record of churches and other religious organizations who operate under separate Polish laws. This registration is not necessary; however, it is beneficial when it comes to serving the freedom of religious practice laws. Slavic Native Faith ( Rodzimowiercy ) groups, registered with

2850-453: The Russian Empire. However, even after this formalized annexation, the territory retained some degree of distinctiveness and continued to be referred to informally as Congress Poland until the Russian rule there ended as a result of the advance by the armies of the Central Powers in 1915 during World War I . The kingdom was 128,500 km in area and originally had a population of approximately 3.3 million. The new state would be one of

2925-734: The United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled in Chicago (billed as the world's most Polish city outside of Poland), Milwaukee, Ohio, Detroit, New Jersey , New York City, Orlando , Pittsburgh , Buffalo , and New England . The highest concentration of Polish Americans in a single New England municipality is in New Britain, Connecticut . The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II. The number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after

3000-521: The Vistulan Country and made part of the Southwestern Krai of the Russian Empire . Despite the fact that the economic situation varied at times, Congress Poland was one of the largest economies in the world. In the mid 1800s the region became heavily industrialized , however, agriculture still maintained a major role in the economy. In addition, the export of wheat , rye and other crops

3075-579: The administrative structure of Poland (now de facto the Vistulan Country ) closer to that of the Russian Empire. It divided larger governorates into smaller ones, introduced the gmina (a new lower-level entity), and restructured the existing five governorates into 10. The 1912 reform created a new governorate – Kholm Governorate – from parts of the Sedlets and Lublin Governorates . It was split off from

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3150-446: The beginning of Polish sugar refineries. The use of iron cutters and plows was also favoured among the farmers. During the January Uprising the occupying authorities sought to deprive peasant insurgents of their popularity among landed gentry . Taxes were raised and the overall economic situation of commoners worsened. The noblemen and landowners were, on the other hand, provided with more privileges, rights and even financial support in

3225-470: The company FOS ( Fabryka Przyrządów Optycznych -"Factory of Optical Equipment") in Warsaw. It was the only firm in the Russian Empire which crafted and produced cameras , telescopes , objectives and stereoscopes . Following the outbreak of World War I the factory was moved to St. Petersburg . In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Russia experienced a coal crisis marked by coal shortages and high prices. This

3300-400: The construction of railway lines and bridges, gained priority in the entire Russian market. Although the economic and industrial progress occurred rapidly, most of the farms, called folwarks , chose to rely on serfs and paid workforce. Only a few experimented by obtaining proper machinery and plowing equipment from England . New crops were being cultivated like sugar beet , which marked

3375-461: The country, while Orthodox Christians can be found mostly in the far north-eastern corner, in the area of Białystok , and Protestants in Cieszyn Silesia and Warmia-Masuria regions. A growing Jewish population exists in major cities, especially in Warsaw , Kraków and Wrocław . Over two million Jews of Polish origin reside in the United States, Brazil, and Israel. Religious organizations in

3450-511: The descendants of the ancient West Slavic Lechites and other tribes that inhabited the Polish territories during the late antiquity period. Poland's recorded history dates back over a thousand years to c. 930–960 AD, when the Western Polans – an influential tribe in the Greater Poland region – united various Lechitic clans under what became the Piast dynasty , thus creating the first Polish state. The subsequent Christianization of Poland by

3525-614: The duchy and parts of Lithuanian lands which were historically in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Both Austria and the United Kingdom , however, disapproved strongly of the idea, Austria issuing a memorandum on returning to the 1795 resolutions with support from the United Kingdom under George IV , Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson and the British delegate to the Congress, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh . Following

3600-462: The force of law," which could alter existing laws. The Administrative Council ( Polish : Rada Administracyjna ) was a part of the Council of State of the kingdom. Introduced by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, it was composed of five ministers, special nominees of the king and the viceroy of the Kingdom of Poland. The council executed the king's will and ruled in the cases outside

3675-426: The form of bribery . The aim of this was to weaken their support for the rebellion against the Russian Empire. Congress Poland was the largest supplier of zinc in Europe. The development of the zinc industry took place at the beginning of the 19th century. It was mostly caused by the significant increase of demand for zinc mainly in industrialized countries of Western Europe . In 1899, Aleksander Ginsberg founded

3750-427: The full implementation of Cyrillic script into the Polish language failed. The office of " namiestnik " was introduced in Poland by the 1815 constitution of Congress Poland . The viceroy was chosen by the king from among the noble citizens of the Russian Empire or the Kingdom of Poland. The viceroy supervised the entire public administration and, in the monarch's absence, chaired the Council of State , as well as

3825-437: The independence of the kingdom lasted only 15 years; initially Alexander I used the title King of Poland and was obligated to observe the provisions of the constitution. However, in time the situation changed and he granted the viceroy, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich , almost dictatorial powers. Very soon after Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them. In 1819, Alexander I abolished freedom of

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3900-406: The language in a uniform manner throughout most of Poland, though numerous dialects and a vernacular language in certain regions coexist alongside standard Polish. The most common lects in Poland are Silesian , spoken in Upper Silesia , and Kashubian , widely spoken in historic Eastern Pomerania ( Pomerelia ), today in the northwestern part of Poland. Kashubian possesses its own status as

3975-412: The minister's competence and prepared projects for the Council of State. The administrative divisions of the kingdom changed several times over its history, and various smaller reforms were also carried out which either changed the smaller administrative units or merged/split various subdivisions. Immediately after its creation in 1815, the Kingdom of Poland was divided into departments , a relic from

4050-716: The most, and approximately 79% of Poles read the news more than once a day, placing it 2nd behind Sweden . As of 2021, six Poles received the Nobel Prize in Literature . The national epic is Pan Tadeusz (English: Master Thaddeus), written by Adam Mickiewicz . Renowned novelists who gained much recognition abroad include Joseph Conrad (wrote in English; Heart of Darkness , Lord Jim ), Stanisław Lem (science-fiction; Solaris ) and Andrzej Sapkowski (fantasy; The Witcher ). Various regions in Poland such as Greater Poland , Lesser Poland , Mazovia , Silesia , and Pomerania developed their own distinct cultures, cuisines, folk costumes and dialects. Also, Poland for centuries

4125-421: The official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : Królestwo Polskie ; Russian: Царство Польское ), in order to distinguish it from other Kingdoms of Poland , it is often referred to as "Congress Poland". The Congress Kingdom of Poland was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw , a French client state, at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 when the great powers reorganized Europe following

4200-440: The press and introduced preventive censorship . Resistance to Russian control began in the 1820s. Russian secret police commanded by Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev started the persecution of Polish secret organizations and in 1821 the King ordered the abolition of Freemasonry , which represented Poland's patriotic traditions. Beginning in 1825, the sessions of the Sejm were held in secret. Alexander I's successor, Nicholas I

4275-433: The realms of finances and foreign policy; his military competence varied. The office of "namiestnik" or viceroy was never abolished; however, the last "namiestnik" was Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert von Berg , who served from 1863 to his death in 1874. No "namiestnik" was named to replace him; however, the role of "namestnik"— viceroy of the former kingdom passed to the governor-general of Warsaw —or, to be more specific, of

4350-416: The resolution of matters connected with their cultural identity. There are smaller communities primarily comprising Protestants (especially Lutherans ), Orthodox Christians (migrants), Jehovah's Witnesses , those irreligious , and Judaism (mostly from the Jewish populations in Poland who have lived in Poland prior to World War II) and Sunni Muslims ( Polish Tatars ). Roman Catholics live all over

4425-406: The rule of the Russian emperor. The state possessed the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland , one of the most liberal in 19th-century Europe, a Sejm (parliament) responsible to the king capable of voting laws, an independent army , currency , budget , penal code and a customs boundary separating it from the rest of Russian lands. Poland also had democratic traditions ( Golden Liberty ) and

4500-608: The sixth-largest national group in the European Union (EU). Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a total number of around 60 million people worldwide (with roughly 18-20 million living outside of Poland, many of whom are not of Polish descent, but are Polish nationals). There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone. There are also strong Polish communities in neighbouring countries, whose territories were once occupied or part of Poland – Czech Republic , Slovakia , Lithuania , Latvia , western Ukraine , and western Belarus . The term " Polonia "

4575-536: The smallest Polish states ever, smaller than the preceding Duchy of Warsaw and much smaller than the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which had a population of over 10 million and an area of 1 million km . Its population reached 6.1 million by 1870 and 10 million by 1900. The majority of ethnic Poles within the Russian Empire lived in the Congress Kingdom, although some areas outside its borders were also inhabited by strong Polish and Roman Catholic minorities. The Kingdom of Poland largely re-emerged as

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4650-443: The structure of the Russian Empire , with the introduction of guberniyas ( governorate , Polish spelling gubernia ). In 1842 the powiats were renamed okręgs , and the obwóds were renamed powiats. In 1844 several governorates were merged with others, and some others were renamed; five governorates remained. In 1867, following the failure of the January Uprising , further reforms were instituted which were designed to bring

4725-491: The tax burden. This allowed to create one of the largest European textile centres in Łódź and in surrounding towns like Ozorków and Zduńska Wola . These small and initially insignificant settlements later developed into large and multicultural cities, where Germans and Jews were the majority in the population. With the abolition of border customs in 1851 and further economic growth, Polish cities were gaining wealth and importance. Most notably, Warsaw , being associated with

4800-415: The times of the French-dominated Duchy of Warsaw . On 16 January 1816 the administrative division was reformed, with the departments being replaced with more traditionally Polish voivodeships (of which there were eight), obwóds and powiats . On 7 March 1837, in the aftermath of the November Uprising earlier that decade, the administrative division was reformed again, bringing Congress Poland closer to

4875-401: The upper Vistula (the Vistulans ), the Baltic Sea coast and in Greater Poland . The ultimate tribal undertaking (10th century) resulted in a lasting political structure and the creation of a Polish state . Polish is the native language of most Poles. It is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group and the sole official language in the Republic of Poland. Its written form uses

4950-460: Was Roman Catholicism and the official language used within the state was Polish until the failed January Uprising (1863) when Russian became co-official as a consequence. Yiddish and German were widely spoken by their native speakers. The territory of Congress Poland roughly corresponds to modern-day Kalisz Region and the Lublin , Łódź , Masovian , Podlaskie and Holy Cross Voivodeships of Poland as well as southwestern Lithuania and

5025-447: Was a corresponding member, and in 1918, a full member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences . The Lidzbarski Gold Medal for Semitic Philology is awarded annually by the German Oriental Society for work in Semitic studies and named after Mark Lidzbarski. This Polish biographical article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Russian Poland Congress Poland or Congress Kingdom of Poland , formally known as

5100-399: Was a refuge to many Jews and to Armenians , who became an important part of Polish society and similarly developed their own unique cultures. Popular everyday foods in Poland include pork cutlets ( kotlet schabowy ), schnitzels, kielbasa sausage, potatoes, coleslaw and salads, soups ( barszcz , tomato or meat broth ), pierogi dumplings, and bread rolls . Traditional Polish cuisine

5175-457: Was attributed to the dramatic increase of industrial output and a still nascent coal mining industry. In 1900, because of coal shortages in the Warsaw industrial region, the Minister of Finance approved the duty-free import of 125,000,000 poods of coal. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897 , Congress Poland had a population of 9,402,253: 4,712,090 men and 4,690,163 women. Polish people Polish people , or Poles , are

5250-446: Was crowned King of Poland on 24 May 1829 in Warsaw, but he declined to swear to abide by the Constitution and continued to limit the independence of the Polish kingdom. Nicholas' rule promoted the idea of Official Nationality, consisting of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality. In relation to Poles, those ideas meant assimilation: turning them into loyal subjects through gradual religious and cultural conversion. The principle of Orthodoxy

5325-415: Was located in Warsaw , which towards the beginning of the 20th century became the Russian Empire's third-largest city after St. Petersburg and Moscow . The moderately multicultural population of Congress Poland was estimated at 9,402,253 inhabitants in 1897. It was mostly composed of Poles , Polish Jews , ethnic Germans , Ukrainians , Lithuanians , and a small Russian minority. The predominant religion

5400-531: Was not until 1822 when Prince Francis Xavier Drucki-Lubecki negotiated to open the Polish market to the world. He also tried to introduce appropriate protective duties. A large and profitable investment was the construction of the Augustów Canal connecting Narew and Neman Rivers, which allowed to bypass Danzig (Gdańsk) and high Prussian tariffs . Drucki-Lubecki also founded the Bank Polski , for which he

5475-495: Was put in place, and efforts were made to change the relations between the state and the individual. All of this led to discontent and resistance among the Polish population. In January 1831, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I as King of Poland in response to his repeated curtailing of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland, resulting in the November Uprising . Following an 11-month military campaign,

5550-511: Was significant in stabilizing the financial output. An important trade partner of Congress Poland was Great Britain , which imported goods in large amounts. Since agriculture was equivalent to 70% of the national income, the most important economic transformations included the establishment of mines and the textile industry; the development of these sectors brought more profit and higher tax revenues. The beginnings were difficult due to floods and an intense diplomatic relationship with Prussia . It

5625-526: Was the result of the special role it played in the Russian Empire, as the Church was in fact becoming a department of state, and other religions discriminated against; for instance, papal bulls could not be read in the largely Catholic kingdom of Poland without agreement from the Russian government. The rule of Nicholas also meant the end of political traditions in Poland; democratic institutions were removed, an appointed—rather than elected—centralized administration

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