Misplaced Pages

#99900

98-608: The history of the Jews in Libya stretches back to the 3rd century BCE, when Cyrenaica was under Greek rule. The Jewish population of Libya, a part of the Sephardi - Maghrebi Jewish community, continued to populate the area continuously until modern times. During World War II , Libya's Jewish population was subjected to antisemitic laws by the Fascist Italian regime and deportations by both

196-408: A Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and relatively mild and rainy winters. The plant communities of this portion of Cyrenaica include forest, woodland, maquis , garrigue , steppe and oak savanna . Garrigue shrublands occupy the non-agricultural portions coastal plain and coastal escarpments, with Sarcopoterium spinosum , along with Asphodelus ramosus and Artemisia herba-alba , as

294-508: A Jewish archon unlike the rest of the Jews in that area. Ein Targhuna , near Massah , is believed to have been a Jewish military settlement during the Roman period. The site features Jewish rock-cut tombs, a menorah carving, possibly belonging to Jewish troops relocated by Augustus . Augustus granted Cyrene's Jewish population certain privileges through Flavius , the governor of the province. At

392-519: A Jewish notable, Saul Raccah was murdered. His killer was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment but later amnestied. A Jewish moneylender was murdered in 1880. Exceptions to such abuses are known. An incident of plundering at Amruss in 1901 lead to full redress and a return of stolen property thanks to the intervention of the local wali. During the Ottoman period , Jewish families from Tripoli were attracted to Benghazi. This period gave new life and impetus to

490-558: A US Air Force facility in Libya, revealed the extent of antisemitic sentiment in the country. The letters revealed that children and dependents of Jewish personnel living off-base had to conceal their Jewish identities, fear for the physical safety of children caused the cancelation of a Jewish Sunday school program, and that the US Air Force was pressuring Jewish personnel to hide their Jewish identities and censored all material that referenced Jews, Judaism, or Israel to avoid offending most of

588-690: A chapter of Ben-Yehuda was established in Benghazi, first as a soccer team and later with cultural activities, such as the commemoration of Jewish holidays and Zionist Festivities. In the late 1930s, Fascist anti-Jewish laws were gradually enforced, and Jews were subject to terrible repression. Until 1936 life under Italian rule proceeded peacefully for the Jews. In 1936, however, the Italians began to enforce fascist legislation, aimed at modernising social and economic structures, based on conditions current in Italy. With

686-586: A depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times as Marmarica , is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture. Bomba and Tobruk have good harbors. South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of

784-596: A fire broke out in a synagogue, but the local police introduced order and there was no need for the British Army to intervene. Once emigration to Israel was permitted in early 1949, the majority of the community of 2,500 Jews in Benghazi emigrated to Israel through the end of 1951. The general environment during the years after the emigration to Israel, was generally positive, no special events, riots or pogrom occurred during this period between 1949 and 1967 and it estimated that 200 Jews Lived in Benghazi during that time. In

882-660: A governor holding the modest rank of praeses . Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient, with its capital at Antioch in Syria, and from 370, to the Diocese of Egypt , within the Praetorian prefecture of Oriens . Its western neighbor Tripolitania , the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of the Diocese of Africa , subordinate to the prefecture of Italia et Africa . Following

980-481: A major Archiepiscopal Metropolis in the days of Pope John VI of Alexandria , it was held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese. After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop, Zopyrus , was present at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The subscriptions at Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) give

1078-616: A mass of Miocene limestone that tilts up steeply from the Mediterranean Sea and falls inland with a gradual descent to sea level again. This mass is divided into two blocks. The Jebel Akhdar extends parallel to the coast from the Gulf of Sidra to the Gulf of Bomba and reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra past Benghazi to Tolmeita . Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at Susa and Derna ,

SECTION 10

#1732858093100

1176-552: A military rebellion at Tobruk in 1980. In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi , announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firm Foster and Partners . The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture, create a national park and develop the region as a cultural and eco-tourism destination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including

1274-435: A passing Arab was out of sight, and each household was subject to the suzerainty of an Arab saheb Some structural vexations nonetheless remained, to create difficulties for these flourishing communities in the later 19th century: namely, a laxness in the application of Islamic law, often arbitrary, and the venality of local officials. A further issue was the expanding wealth gap opening up between resident foreign Jews and

1372-519: A result of the migration by Arab tribes, Cyrenaica became more Arab than any place in the Arab world except for the interior of Arabia . The Ayyubid emir Qaraqush marched into the Maghreb and according to al-Maqrizi had taken control of Cyrenaica on orders of Saladin who wanted to use the province as an agricultural base. The Mamluks were seemingly unable to exert any significant control and had to ally with

1470-435: A special governor styled praefectus augustalis ) in 30 BC. Diocletian 's Tetrarchy reforms of 293 altered Cyrenaica's administrative structure. It was split into two provinces: Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolis , comprising the above-mentioned Pentapolis, with Cyrene as its capital, and Libya Inferior or Libya Sicca , comprising Marmarica, with the important port city of Paraetonium as its capital. Each came under

1568-705: Is an unknown Hellenistic Jew . While Greek-speaking, he still favored the rebel Maccabees in their revolt against the Seleucid Empire ; the rebels included both traditionalist Aramaic-speaking Jews as well as Greek-speaking Jews who opposed the anti-Jewish decrees of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes . Cyrene, Libya in the Hellenistic era was a province at the western edge of the Ptolemaic Kingdom , which also included Egypt and Cyprus. Diaspora Jews had spread through Ptolemaic lands in this era, so him being from Cyrene

1666-470: Is dismissed by other scholars as unlikely, as parts of the book 2 Maccabees that seem likely to stem from Jason's history make strange geographical statements concerning the region, such as a claim in 2 Maccabees 12 :9 that a fire in distant Jamnia was visible from Jerusalem. Jason's work is said to have been in five books, originally written in Koine Greek . The original work is lost and known only in

1764-523: Is now northeast Libya, likely stemmed from their substantial presence in neighboring Ptolemaic Egypt . After Ptolemy I Soter 's conquest of Judea , many Jews were initially taken as captives but were later freed, while others emigrated to Egypt voluntarily, attracted by economic opportunities and Ptolemy's tolerant policies. In 312 BCE, Ptolemy settled many Jews in Cyrenaica to strengthen his kingdom. The historical record provides only limited information on

1862-693: Is plausible, and the long-standing Ptolemaic rivalry with the Seleucids that had resulted in the Syrian Wars would have meant that supporting the Maccabees and opposing the Seleucids would have aligned with the politics of the government, so there would be little fear of censorship. Some scholars suggest that Jason might have been an eyewitness to the events of the Maccabean Revolt and lived in Judea at some point. This

1960-606: Is the source of the Second Book of Maccabees , and Simon of Cyrene , who is believed to have carried the cross of Jesus as he was taken to his crucifixion . The Diaspora Revolt of 115–117 CE saw Jewish communities in Cyrenaica, Egypt , and Cyprus rising in rebellion during Trajan 's reign. This revolt had a messianic dimension, as one ancient source refers to Lukuas , the leader of the Jewish rebels in Libya, as "king," suggesting that

2058-719: The Crete earthquake of 365 , the capital was moved to Ptolemais . After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire ( Byzantine Empire ), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of the Vandal Kingdom to the west, until its reconquest by Belisarius in 533. The Tabula Peutingeriana shows Pentapolites to the east of Syrtes Maiores , indicating the cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Taucheira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis, Balacris and Cyrene. According to

SECTION 20

#1732858093100

2156-601: The French occupation of Tunisia and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) The resulting bigotry occasioned riotous outbreaks which targeted Jews, who were increasingly viewed as allied to European interests, The aggravated conditions in the late Ottoman period in Libya led to a marked rise in intolerance and contempt as anti-Jewish sentiments, formerly unknown, set down roots. Incidents of arson, murder, robbery and looting increased, with local authorities and rulers failingd to apply

2254-688: The Kingdom of Libya was established and granted independence. In 1949, Idris al-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed the independent Emirate of Cyrenaica . This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris al-Senussi becoming King Idris. Since 1 September 1969, when the Senussi dynasty was overthrown by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi , Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi's military dictatorship , including

2352-696: The Marble Arch as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast. There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica during World War II on the part of the Allies against the Italian Army and the Nazi German Afrika Korps . In late 1942, Allied forces liberated Cyrenaica from Axis occupation and the United Kingdom administered most of Libya through 1951, when

2450-479: The Pact of Umar . The result was a kind of symbiotic complementarity. The sense of mistrust, resentment and hostility towards a minority, reflecting also economic and religious differences remained latent, aside from occasional explosions of violence. The practice of usury was the main cause of animosity. The standard interest rate for pledged monies was 60% per annum, which could reach as high as 90% for smaller amounts of

2548-497: The Roman Republic . The Latin name Cyrenaica (or Kyrenika ) dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together with Crete . It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighbor Africa proconsularis , and unlike Egypt itself, which became an imperial domain sui generis (under

2646-763: The Synoptic Gospels , Simon of Cyrene carried the cross of Jesus Christ to the crucifixion. According to one tradition, Mark the Evangelist was born in the Pentapolis, and later returned after preaching with Paul the Apostle in Colosse (Col 4:10) and Rome (Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria . Early Christianity spread to Pentapolis from Egypt; Synesius of Cyrene (370–414), bishop of Ptolemais , received his instruction at Alexandria in both

2744-593: The administrative divisions of Libya , since 1995. The 2011 Libyan Civil War started in Cyrenaica, which came largely under the control of the National Transitional Council (headquartered in Benghazi ) for most of the war. In 2012, a body known as the Cyrenaica Transitional Council unilaterally declared Cyrenaica to be an autonomous region of Libya. Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on

2842-498: The epitome made by the author of 2 Maccabees. According to the introductory chapters of 2 Maccabees, also written in Greek: The story of Judas Maccabeus and his brothers, and the purification of the great temple, and the dedication of the altar, and further the wars against Antiochus Epiphanes and his son Eupator, and the appearances that came from heaven to those who fought bravely for Judaism, so that though few in number they seized

2940-438: The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia proposed the parts may be divided by verses 3:40, 7:42, 10:9, 13:26, and 15:37. As the date of authorship of 2 Maccabees is unknown, so too is the date of Jason's work, other than that it must be prior to the abridgment. Most believe 2 Maccabees to have been written around 100 BCE, with some such as Daniel Schwartz suggesting even earlier dates as around 150 BCE. Many scholars believe that Jason

3038-521: The 523,716 natives of the Tripolitanian region. The growth of markets led to a trend towards urbanization and the growth of new settlements in both communities. The central Ottoman authorities were favourably disposed to the Jews, and earlier guarantees to the Jewish community were strengthened by an Imperial Decree in 1865 that accorded them an autonomy, and endowed local rabbis with the right to independently represent their community. Established along

History of the Jews in Libya - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-561: The Catechetical School and the Mouseion , and he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection for Hypatia , the last pagan Neoplatonist , whose classes he had attended. Synesius was raised to the episcopate by Theophilus , patriarch of Alexandria, in 410. Since the First Council of Nicaea in 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria , per

3234-509: The Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene. For much of the Libyan civil war , Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the National Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state, but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and

3332-843: The Fatimids to the Zirids . In the middle of the 11th century, several Arab tribes, including the Bedouin Banu Hilal confederation devastated the North African coast under Zirid control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by the Banu Sulaym while the Banu Hilal marched westwards. The invasion contributed to the decline of the port cities and maritime trade. Up to 200,000 Hilalian families migrated into Cyrenaica from Egypt. As

3430-485: The Italian and German armies . After the war, anti-Jewish violence caused many Jews to leave the country, principally for Israel , though significant numbers moved to Italy and North America. Under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi , who ruled the country from 1969 to 2011 , the situation deteriorated further, eventually leading to the emigration of the remaining Jewish population. The last Jew in Libya, 80-year-old Rina Debach, left

3528-530: The Jewish Community Council was dissolved by law. In 1961, a new law was passed requiring a special permit to prove true Libyan citizenship, which was, however, denied to all but six Jewish inhabitants of the country. Additional laws were enacted allowing the seizure of property and assets of Libyan Jews who had immigrated to Israel. In 1964, letters to US Senator Jacob Javits from Jewish United States Air Force personnel serving on Wheelus Air Base ,

3626-496: The Jewish community was courted, and with the appointment of Eliyahu Bekhor ben Raphael Joseph Ḥazzan as the their Hakham Bashi (1872-1886), provided with lavish funding. The Jewish population witnessed a sharp rise in growth so that by 1911, well over a century after the ravages of the 1785 plague which decimated both communities, Jews, exclusive of those who were considered foreign immigrants (the wealthier Dutch, Italian, Austrian and Spanish Jewish traders), constituted 14,283 of

3724-417: The Jewish community was in a deplorable economic, social and psychological state. The demeaning effects of the Italian racial laws, war and concentration camps took a heavy toll on the Jewish community. The British also boosted the spirits of the Jews with promises to repatriate them to their homes in Benghazi, and giving them the chance to rehabilitate their lives. After full repatriation of Benghazi Jews it

3822-524: The Jews of Benghazi, Derna, Tobruk, Barce, Susa and other towns in the region to be sent to a concentration camp in Gharian in retaliation. An eyewitness described these horrifying moments: “In the synagogue they started hanging up lists every day of 20-30 families that had to leave...They took Jews from Benghazi and from the vicinity: Derna, Brace, Tobruk...The journey took five days. We travelled about 2,000 km. from Benghazi to Giado. They took us like animals to

3920-661: The Jews was generally good. But, in late 1939, the Fascist Italian regime began passing anti-Semitic laws. As a result of these laws, Jews were fired from government jobs, some were dismissed from government schools, and their citizenship papers were stamped with the words "Jewish race." In the 1920s a few incidents linked to the Arab-Jewish conflict in Palestine were reported. The incidents that occurred in Tripoli and Benghazi, those which occurred in Tripoli were not so serious compared to

4018-511: The Libyan Jewish community had prepared to defend itself. Jewish self-defence units fought back against the rioters, preventing more deaths. Both in November 1945 and June 1948 the Jews of Benghazi did not suffer anti-Jewish pogroms at the hands of Arabs similar to the Jews of Tripoli, though small-scale incidents did occur. Thus, several Jews were beaten up in mid-June 1948, a shop was looted, and

History of the Jews in Libya - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-465: The Libyan Jewish community. In 1745 epidemics and poverty drove out the inhabitants, but around 1,750 members of the previous Jewish community returned and reconstructed the community, which began to flourish with the arrival of Jewish families from Italy. In the 18th and 19th centuries Benghazi had 400 Jewish families divided into two groups, those of the town and the surrounding region and those who were born in Tripoli and Italy, they both recognised

4214-477: The Roman era, Jewish communities in Cyrenaica became more prominent, with inscriptions revealing their integration into civic life. By the early imperial period, Jews held various positions within the city administrations of Cyrene and other cities. This integration is reflected in inscriptions that document Jews serving in civic roles and acquiring citizenship. There is evidence of Jews living in Benghazi from 13 BCE. They were considered citizens, but were ruled by

4312-712: The Sahara is known as the Libyan Desert , and includes the Great Sand Sea and the Calanshio Sand Sea . The Libyan Desert is home to a few oases , including Awjila and Jaghbub . The Berbers were the earliest recorded inhabitants of Cyrenaica. Egyptian records mention that during the New Kingdom of Egypt (thirteenth century BC), the Libu and Meshwesh tribes of Cyrenaica made frequent incursions into Egypt. Cyrenaica

4410-412: The anti-Semitism which tainted the latter. The government, though it did impose a special tax on those who did not do military service, opposed this drift in order to balance the pressure of European expansion, by recognizing the importance of developing the local economy where wealthy Jews played a significant role. A number of international incidents also contributed to local outbursts of xenophobia, like

4508-502: The area came to be known as Barqa , after the city of Barca . Cyrenaica became an Italian colony in 1911 . After the 1934 formation of Italian Libya , the Cyrenaica province was designated as one of the three primary provinces of the country . During World War II, it fell under British military and civil administration from 1943 until 1951, and finally in the Kingdom of Libya from 1951 until 1963. The region that used to be Cyrenaica officially until 1963 has formed several shabiyat ,

4606-489: The authority of one rabbi, but each had its own synagogue. The Muslim brotherhood of the Sanusiya was well-disposed toward the Jews of Benghazi, appreciating their economic-mercantile contributions and their peaceful attitude. The community enjoyed a complete freedom, and were not forced to live in a special quarter. Because of their commercial activity the town became an important trading centre for Europe and Africa. In 1903,

4704-503: The camp to better housing in the vicinity, to receive medical care and be properly fed. Then gradually each week, a number of families was selected to be put on trucks and sent back to their homes. The expenses for transport of these Jews back to Cyrenaica and the initial assistance were financed by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee . Upon the establishment of British rule on January 23, 1943,

4802-506: The camp. They were buried on a valley nearby that used to be a burial place of Jews hundreds of years ago. In addition to the camp's poor conditions, the behaviour of the Italian officers did not spare any type of humiliation, oppression and abuse, especially on Friday nights when the Maresciallo patrolled the buildings and saw the special food of the Sabbath, he used to kick it and spill it on

4900-563: The city of Cyrene ), is the eastern region of Libya . Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the 16th and 25th meridians east, including the Kufra District . The coastal region, also known as Pentapolis ("Five Cities") in antiquity , was part of the Roman province of Crete and Cyrenaica , later divided into Libya Pentapolis and Libya Sicca . During the Islamic period,

4998-471: The country in 2003. The area of Libya was divided in classical times into three distinct geographical regions, Tripolitania , Cyrenaica and the Fezzan . Jewish migration was predominantly along the coastlines, and historically the vast majority of the Jewish population was concentrated in the western, Tripolitania province. Early Jewish settlement in Cyrenaica , a region with significant Greek influence in what

SECTION 50

#1732858093100

5096-596: The desert. Sent to work in labor camps , more than one-fifth of this group of Jews perished. Jews were concentrated in the cities of Tripoli and Benghazi , with small communities in Bayda and Misrata . The worst experience for Libyan Jews in the war was the internment of Cyrenaican Jews in Giado , a concentration camp located 235 kilometres from Tripoli. In January 1942, the Italian authorities began to apply Mussolini ’s “Sfollamento” (evacuation) order to Libyan Jews. Mussolini ordered

5194-745: The development of Jewish communities in Cyrenaica during the Ptolemaic period. One notable figure from this time is Jason of Cyrene , who wrote a historical account of the Maccabean revolt during the second century BCE. This account was later summarized in 2 Maccabees . While Jason's work suggests advanced education and an interest in Jewish nationalistic causes, it is unclear whether his perspectives were representative of broader Cyrenaican Jewry. Nonetheless, his writings suggest there may have been some level of interaction between Judea and Cyrenaica during this period. In 146 BCE inscriptions found at Benghazi and elsewhere in Libya, give details about wealthy, well established and organised Jewish communities. During

5292-449: The dissemination of the Hebrew in Tripoli and young people from the Benghazi community came to study there. The meeting between the young Jews of Benghazi and the Tripolitanian Zionists bore fruit in the form of a “Talmud Torah” which was an evening school in Tripoli. In 1911, Libya was colonised by Italy . By 1931, there were 21,000 Jews living in the country (4% of the total population of 550,000), mostly in Tripoli . The situation for

5390-419: The dramatic conditions suffered during the brief Almohadic interim , generally from medieval times down to the early modern period, both personal and intercommunal relations between Libyan Jews, who had become highly Arabized, and Muslims had been quite amenable, Jews enjoying greater security than was the case with their confreres in Christian countries, in line with the religious and traditional applications of

5488-430: The flocks and herds of the local Bedouins . Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops. The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that

5586-406: The floor or urinate on it and thus a few families remained without food for the whole Sabbath. (4) On January 24, 1943, the British liberated the camp and immediately undertook emergency measures to control the plague of typhus and lice that already killed 562 of its inhabitants. The British military decided to evacuate Giado between the spring and summer of 1943. The Jews were first evacuated from

5684-422: The forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007. The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by the Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe , a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-arid Sahara . The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by

5782-472: The fourth and fifth centuries, Jewish communities re-emerged in Cyrenaica, likely composed of immigrants from Palestine and the re-established Jewish community in nearby Egypt. The Spaniards, who conquered Libya in 1510 and held it for a brief period, drove some of the Jews to the mountain areas of Gharian and Tajura . Others were taken as prisoners and tortured under the laws of the inquisition, whilst others were taken to Naples and sold as slaves. Despite

5880-421: The greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of the Hellenistic style . The Cyrenaics , a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. Other notable natives of Cyrene were

5978-423: The implementation of anti-Jewish racial legislation in late 1938, Jews were removed from municipal councils, public offices, and state schools and their papers were stamped with the words "Jewish race." German influence in Libya had been felt since 1938. However, Germany's direct involvement in the colonial authorities’ affairs and management did not completely materialise until 1941. It was only when Italy entered

SECTION 60

#1732858093100

6076-407: The kind Arab hinterland borrowers depended on. General discontent spread during the final years of the Karamanli dynasty coinciding with a notable economic downturn, in what long remained a mere subsistence economy. The return of Ottoman rule to Tripoli in 1835 brought about an improvement in both the legal and economic conditions for Jews in the area. In the wake of the Ottoman Tanzimat reforms ,

6174-410: The late 1940s, some 40,000 Jews lived in Libya. The Libyan Jewish community suffered great insecurity during this period. The founding of Israel in 1948, as well as Libya's independence from Italy in 1951 and subsequent admission into the Arab League , led many Jews to emigrate. From 1948 to 1951, and especially after emigration became legal in 1949, 30,972 Jews moved to Israel. On 31 December 1958,

6272-480: The latter were often associated with a perception that wealthy foreign Jews had undue influence over the government. As modernizing changes increased their pace, many Jews assumed a mediating role between the crumbling order institutional world and the emerging new society, and bore the brunt for the upheavals of change. Sectors of the Muslim community itself, exposed to emergent trends in Europe, began to develop their own rudimentary form of nationalism, taking on board

6370-530: The laws protecting Jews laid out by the central ottoman government. Illustrative examples of such attitudes were the sacking of synagogues in Misrata in 1864 and 1897; an arson attack on that in Zliten in 1867, for which damages were later paid. In 1880 the synagogue at Az-Zāwiyah was plundered. Due to the negligence of the authorities such as the resident walis in punishing the culprits, frequent attacks on Jewish families and theft of their property led to cases of murders in reports for 1880 and 1897. In 1870,

6468-577: The local population. By 1967, the Jewish population of Libya had decreased to 7,000. After the Six-Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbors, Libyan Jews were once again the target of anti-Jewish riots. During these attacks , rioters killed 18 people and more were injured. Cyrenaica Cyrenaica ( / ˌ s aɪ r ə ˈ n eɪ . ɪ k ə ˌ ˌ s ɪr -/ SY -rə- NAY -ik-ə-,- SIRR -ə ) or Kyrenaika ( Arabic : برقة , romanized :  Barqah , Koinē Greek : Κυρηναϊκή [ἐπαρχία] , romanized:  Kūrēnaïkḗ [eparkhíā] , after

6566-423: The main trade routes, Libyan Jews assumed an important role in credit by loans and deferral of incumbent payments, and were so trusted that Arab women would allow Jewish commercial agents access to their homes, something denied to other Muslims. The small scattered hinterland Jewish communities were not beneficiaries of these general improvements. There, custom allowed the harassment of Jews, who had to dismount until

6664-404: The military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrifate existed until the Italian invasion. The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 and declared it an Italian protectorate on 15 October 1912. Three days later, the Ottoman Empire officially ceded the province to the Kingdom of Italy . On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica

6762-406: The names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus. Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria . Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command of Amr ibn al-As during

6860-432: The one who recasts the narrative should be allowed to strive for brevity of expression and to forego exhaustive treatment." It is also unknown just how much freedom the epitomist allowed himself with Jason's narrative; in addition to rearranging it, he likely added his own details and altered others. Some readers of 2 Maccabees suggest that they can determine the "original" five parts that correspond to Jason's five volumes;

6958-498: The ones in Benghazi. According to Gustavo Calo, the chief rabbi of Benghazi, there was actually an attempted pogrom but according to the opinion of Elia Fargion the president of the community, this assessment was exaggerated. Data from 1931 indicates that spoken Italian was relatively widespread across the Jewish population. In Benghazi, 67.1 percent of Jewish men and 40.8 percent of Jewish women spoke Italian, compared to 34.5 percent of Arab men and 1.6 percent of Arab women. In 1934,

7056-546: The other a mixed maquis in which the endemic Arbutus pavarii is prominent, and forests of Cupressus sempervirens , Juniperus phoenicea, Olea europaea , Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua, and Pinus halepensis . Areas of red soil are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops of wheat and barley from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to

7154-542: The poet Callimachus and the mathematicians Theodorus and Eratosthenes . In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, the Achaemenid (Persian) army of Cambyses II seized the Pentapolis, and established a satrapy (Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries. The Persians were followed by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, who received tribute from the cities after taking Egypt. The Pentapolis

7252-575: The poorer indigenous Jews. After 1861, pressure from European powers, duly informed of abuses by the Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU), mitigated the impact of some abuses, and the growth of charities and schooling alleviated stress, though conducive to a certain fatalistic passiveness, which was considered to have traditionally marked these communities, whose ‘vegetative’ superstitiousness, and lifestyle in highly cramped and disease-ridden ghetto ( hara ) hovels, together with ignorance,

7350-403: The predominant species. Small areas of maquis are found on north-facing slopes near the sea, becoming more extensive on the lower plateau. Juniperus phoenicea , Pistacia lentiscus , Quercus coccifera and Ceratonia siliqua are common tree and large shrub species in the maquis. The upper plateau includes areas of garrigue, two maquis communities, one dominated by Pistacia lentiscus and

7448-400: The province, with no major population centers, was called Marmarica ; the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities: Cyrene (near the modern village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe or Taucheira (Tocra), Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi ), Balagrae ( Bayda ) and Barce ( Marj ) – of which the chief

7546-525: The records of the Alliance Israelite Universelle show 14,000 Jews living in Tripoli and 2,000 in Benghazi. A further 4,480 dwelt in the surrounding towns. In comparison to Zionist activities in other Arab countries, Zionism started early in Libya and was extensive, it was followed by many activities such as exchanging letters concerning Zionism matters between Benghazi and Tripoli during the period 1900–1904. An organization had been set up for

7644-595: The resident Bedouins to accept their suzerainty indirectly while paying taxes. The Ottoman Empire later claimed suzerainty of Cyrenaica based on the Mamluk claim of suzerainty through alliance with the tribes. Cyrenaica was subsumed into Ottoman Libya . In 1879, Cyrenaica became a wilayah of the Ottoman Empire. In 1888, it became a mutasarrıfiyya under a mutasarrif and was further divided into five qadaas. The wali of Ottoman Tripolitania , however, looked after

7742-399: The revolt inflicted extensive damage on civic infrastructure, temples, and roads, necessitating substantial reconstruction by Hadrian at the beginning of his reign. The revolt's suppression by Roman general Marcius Turbo resulted in widespread devastation and the near-total expulsion of Jews from Cyrenaica. While there may be some evidence of Jewish farmers in rural Marmarica by the end of

7840-962: The ruling of the Nicaean Fathers. The patriarch of the Coptic Church to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction. The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church , as the Pope of Alexandria was the Pope of Africa. The most senior position in The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church after the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western Pentapolis, although, since its demise as

7938-493: The same person is doubtful, however. 2 Maccabees ends with the victory of Judas over Nicanor in 161 BCE at the Battle of Adasa . It is not known whether Jason's work stopped there as well, or if the epitomist of 2 Maccabees cut the story there, perhaps for literary reasons. If the motive of the author of 2 Maccabees was telling an uplifting account praising Judas Maccabeus, then stopping there would avoid Judas's upcoming death; if

8036-597: The second century, a significant Jewish presence was not re-established in Cyrenaica until the 4th century. According to Jewish tradition, after the Bar-Kokhba revolt of 132-135 AD, the Romans deported twelve boatloads of Jews from Judea to Cyrenaica. Approximately half a million Jews are thought to have already been living there at the time. Most lived in farming villages while those by the sea were often sailors. Many others were potters, stonemasons, weavers, and merchants. During

8134-473: The shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range. The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of the Mediterranean woodlands and forests ecoregion and have

8232-493: The slaughter house. Forty people in each truck and each truck had two Italian policemen. They took only Jews. According to the rumour it was the Germans who gave the order”. In June 1942, the execution of Mussolini's orders was completed and all Cyrenaican Jews were transferred to Giado. The living conditions in the camp were deplorable, bringing about infection and illness and, consequently, plagues that killed numerous people in

8330-580: The tenure of the second caliph, Omar , in c.  642 , and became known as Barqah after its provincial capital, the ancient city of Barce . After the breakdown of the Ummayad caliphate it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under the Fatimid caliphs. The region became a base for piracy, and many of the pirates acted as privateers for the Fatimids. Around 1051/52, Jabbara, emir of Barqa, transferred his allegiance from

8428-538: The three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed. Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolitana listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees : For the ancient sees of Libya Inferior, see Marmarica . For those of Creta, see Byzantine Crete . Jason of Cyrene Jason of Cyrene

8526-756: The time, they maintained close contact with the Jews in Jerusalem . In 73 CE, during the First Jewish–Roman War in Judaea , there was also a revolt by the Jewish community in Cyrene led by Jonathan the Weaver, which was quickly suppressed by the governor Catullus . Jonathan was denounced to the governor of Pentapolis . In vengeance, the Romans killed him and many wealthy Jews in Cyrene. Several Libyan Jews from around this period are known today, such as Jason of Cyrene , whose work

8624-567: The uprising evolved from an ethnic conflict into a nationalist movement with messianic aspirations for political independence. It is possible that the rebels in Libya, whose actions caused widespread destruction and included a raid into Egypt, were attempting to initiate a broader movement aimed at a large-scale return to Judea . Ancient sources depict the revolt as exceptionally brutal, with reports of mutilation and cannibalism; however, contemporary scholars often view these accounts as exaggerated for rhetorical effect. In Cyrene and its surroundings,

8722-515: The war in 1940 that Libya became subjected to direct Fascist - Nazi collaboration and “Nazi-Style” deportations. Despite this repression, 25% of the population of Tripoli was still Jewish in 1941 and 44 synagogues were maintained in the city. In 1942, German troops fighting the Allies in North Africa occupied the Jewish quarter of Benghazi , plundering shops and deporting more than 2,000 Jews across

8820-558: The whole land and pursued the barbarian hordes, and regained possession of the temple famous throughout the world, and liberated the city, and re-established the laws that were about to be abolished, while the Lord with great kindness became gracious to them— all this, which has been set forth by Jason of Cyrene in five volumes, we shall attempt to condense into a single book. The epitomist goes on to imply that Jason's original work "discuss matters from every side, and to take trouble with details, but

8918-514: The worst anti-Jewish violence occurred in the years following the liberation of North Africa by Allied troops. From 5 to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom in Tripolitania . The rioters looted nearly all of the city's synagogues and destroyed five of them, along with hundreds of homes and businesses. In June 1948, anti-Jewish rioters killed another 12 Jews and destroyed 280 Jewish homes. This time, however,

9016-681: Was colonized by the Greeks beginning in the seventh century BC, when it was known as Kyrenaïka . The first and most important colony was that of Cyrene , established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island of Thera , which they had abandoned because of a severe famine. Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos. His descendants, known as the Battiadae , persisted despite severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities. The eastern portion of

9114-413: Was complained of by several AIU reports. Overall, by the end of the 19th century, while economic conditions did improve both for the hinterland and richer Tripoli communities of Jews, conditions for the urban masses of Jews worsened, exacerbated by both a high birth-rate and the influx of Jews from the outlying territory, which also led to a deterioration of relations with Muslims. Complaints about usury by

9212-462: Was established as an Italian colony , and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognized Sheikh Sidi Idriss as the leader of the Senussi , who was granted the princely rank of emir until 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934, Tripolitania , Cyrenaica, and Fezzan were united as the Italian colony of Libya . The Italian fascists constructed

9310-587: Was formally annexed by Ptolemy I Soter , and through him passed to the diadoch dynasty of the Lagids, better known as the Ptolemaic dynasty . It briefly gained independence under Magas of Cyrene , stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the main kingdom by Ptolemy VIII and given to his son Ptolemy Apion , who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to

9408-436: Was likely a contemporary of Judas and the Maccabean Revolt, citing occasional highly accurate passages in 2 Maccabees. If this is true, then Jason's volume was likely written at some point in the middle of the second century BCE, from ~160–130 BCE. One interesting possibility is that the book of 1 Maccabees mentions an emissary sent by Judas Maccabeus to the Roman Republic named Jason; most believe that this Jason being

9506-465: Was reported that there were 3,400 Jews in Benghazi (before the war, in June 1939 the Jewish community of Benghazi numbered 3,653). Yet many of the Jews who returned to Benghazi were unemployed, while those with jobs were unable to support themselves on what they earned. The Benghazi Jewish community suffered more than any other Jewish community in Libya since it was hit harder by the perils of war. Some of

9604-478: Was the eponymous Cyrene. The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of Ammonium . The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle and silphium , a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure and aphrodisiac . Cyrene became one of

#99900