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62-582: The Cyrenaica Transitional Council , also shortened as CTC , is the claimed government of the Libyan region of Cyrenaica , formed on 6 March 2012. This Libya -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Cyrenaica Cyrenaica ( / ˌ s aɪ r ə ˈ n eɪ . ɪ k ə ˌ ˌ s ɪr -/ SY -rə- NAY -ik-ə-,- SIRR -ə ) or Kyrenaika ( Arabic : برقة , romanized :  Barqah , Koinē Greek : Κυρηναϊκή [ἐπαρχία] , romanized:  Kūrēnaïkḗ [eparkhíā] , after

124-408: A Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and relatively mild and rainy winters. The plant communities of this portion of Cyrenaica include forest, woodland, maquis , garrigue , steppe and oak savanna . Garrigue shrublands occupy the non-agricultural portions coastal plain and coastal escarpments, with Sarcopoterium spinosum , along with Asphodelus ramosus and Artemisia herba-alba , as

186-469: A transition zone between the moist broadleaf and mixed forests to the east and the arid Great Plains to the west. They are found in a wide belt from northern Minnesota and southern Wisconsin, down through Iowa, Illinois, northern and central Missouri, eastern Kansas, and central Oklahoma to north-central Texas, with isolated pockets further east around the Great Lakes , including Ontario. According to

248-586: A depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times as Marmarica , is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture. Bomba and Tobruk have good harbors. South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of

310-514: A few species that are unique to oak savannas. Some important species in the midwest oak savanna include a variety of bats, like the evening bat ( Nycticeius humeralis ) found in Missouri, and many types of birds, including the blue winged warbler  ( Vermivora cyanoptera ), field sparrow ( Spizella pusilla ), and summer tanager ( Piranga rubra ). Oak savannas, because of their mixture of grassland, woodland, and unique savanna species, typically have

372-660: A governor holding the modest rank of praeses . Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient, with its capital at Antioch in Syria, and from 370, to the Diocese of Egypt , within the Praetorian prefecture of Oriens . Its western neighbor Tripolitania , the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of the Diocese of Africa , subordinate to the prefecture of Italia et Africa . Following

434-587: A high tolerance for fire, principally certain oak species, were able to survive. On sandy soils, black oak ( Quercus velutina ) predominated. On rich soils bur oak ( Quercus macrocarpa ) was the major tree in Midwestern North America. These savanna areas provided habitat for many animals, including American bison , elk , and white-tailed deer . Research by Granado-Díaz, Villanueva, & Colombo (2024) on land manager preferences for environmental services in oak savannas offers historical insights into

496-470: A higher plant diversity than grasslands and woodlands combined. Before European settlement , the oak savanna, a characteristic fire ecology , was extensive and was often a dominant part of the ecosystem. Fires set by lightning ensured that the savanna areas did not turn into forests. Savannas normally were found next to large prairies near rolling hills and this combination of habitat was perfect for deer, bison, elk, and other grazing animals. Only trees with

558-529: A major Archiepiscopal Metropolis in the days of Pope John VI of Alexandria , it was held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese. After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop, Zopyrus , was present at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The subscriptions at Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) give

620-616: A mass of Miocene limestone that tilts up steeply from the Mediterranean Sea and falls inland with a gradual descent to sea level again. This mass is divided into two blocks. The Jebel Akhdar extends parallel to the coast from the Gulf of Sidra to the Gulf of Bomba and reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra past Benghazi to Tolmeita . Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at Susa and Derna ,

682-552: A military rebellion at Tobruk in 1980. In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi , announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firm Foster and Partners . The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture, create a national park and develop the region as a cultural and eco-tourism destination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including

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744-519: A result of the migration by Arab tribes, Cyrenaica became more Arab than any place in the Arab world except for the interior of Arabia . The Ayyubid emir Qaraqush marched into the Maghreb and according to al-Maqrizi had taken control of Cyrenaica on orders of Saladin who wanted to use the province as an agricultural base. The Mamluks were seemingly unable to exert any significant control and had to ally with

806-435: A special governor styled praefectus augustalis ) in 30 BC. Diocletian 's Tetrarchy reforms of 293 altered Cyrenaica's administrative structure. It was split into two provinces: Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolis , comprising the above-mentioned Pentapolis, with Cyrene as its capital, and Libya Inferior or Libya Sicca , comprising Marmarica, with the important port city of Paraetonium as its capital. Each came under

868-417: Is a key part in these restoration efforts. Two separate studies done by Garrastatxu et al. (2024) and Encinas‐Valero et al. (2024) have identified the crucial role of fungal symbionts and the tree-soil microbial system in the health of oak savannas, underlining the importance of these factors in restoration practices. This insight is pivotal, as it highlights the interconnectedness of all elements within

930-428: Is estimated that about only less than 0.02% of the original savannas remain due to human interaction and many organizations and conservations are prioritizing restoring and recreating these ecosystems in the midwest. Examples of remnant oak savanna include: Examples of restored oak savanna sites: In Europe, wood pastures , semi-open oak woodlands used for grazing, were widespread and common landscape features across

992-719: The Crete earthquake of 365 , the capital was moved to Ptolemais . After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire ( Byzantine Empire ), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of the Vandal Kingdom to the west, until its reconquest by Belisarius in 533. The Tabula Peutingeriana shows Pentapolites to the east of Syrtes Maiores , indicating the cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Taucheira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis, Balacris and Cyrene. According to

1054-997: The Iberian Peninsula . In the Western Mediterranean, oak savannas, known as dehesas in Spanish and montados in Portuguese, are at present widespread, concentrated in Southern Portugal, the Extremadura and Andalusia . They are actively managed and used for the production of cork and as pastures for Spanish fighting bulls and the black Iberian pig for the production of Jamón ibérico , among other uses. The main tree components are ballota oak ( Quercus rotundifolia ) and cork oak ( Quercus suber ), but Portuguese oak ( Quercus faginea ) and Pyrenean oak ( Quercus pyrenaica ) may also be common. Other oak species found in

1116-688: The Kingdom of Libya was established and granted independence. In 1949, Idris al-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed the independent Emirate of Cyrenaica . This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris al-Senussi becoming King Idris. Since 1 September 1969, when the Senussi dynasty was overthrown by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi , Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi's military dictatorship , including

1178-748: The Marble Arch as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast. There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica during World War II on the part of the Allies against the Italian Army and the Nazi German Afrika Korps . In late 1942, Allied forces liberated Cyrenaica from Axis occupation and the United Kingdom administered most of Libya through 1951, when

1240-497: The Roman Republic . The Latin name Cyrenaica (or Kyrenika ) dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together with Crete . It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighbor Africa proconsularis , and unlike Egypt itself, which became an imperial domain sui generis (under

1302-763: The Synoptic Gospels , Simon of Cyrene carried the cross of Jesus Christ to the crucifixion. According to one tradition, Mark the Evangelist was born in the Pentapolis, and later returned after preaching with Paul the Apostle in Colosse (Col 4:10) and Rome (Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria . Early Christianity spread to Pentapolis from Egypt; Synesius of Cyrene (370–414), bishop of Ptolemais , received his instruction at Alexandria in both

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1364-593: The administrative divisions of Libya , since 1995. The 2011 Libyan Civil War started in Cyrenaica, which came largely under the control of the National Transitional Council (headquartered in Benghazi ) for most of the war. In 2012, a body known as the Cyrenaica Transitional Council unilaterally declared Cyrenaica to be an autonomous region of Libya. Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on

1426-625: The 13th century, illustrate early recognition of obstacles to oak regeneration. These ordinances required the planting of oak seedlings to prevent overharvesting, given oak's significant timber worth and adaptability. Pre-settlement there were approximately 50,000,000 acres of oak savanna in what is now the Midwestern United States, all of it located exclusively in a wide strip stretching from southwestern Michigan to eastern Nebraska, and from southern Manitoba to central Texas. After Europeans arrived, fire suppression and settlement diminished

1488-561: The Catechetical School and the Mouseion , and he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection for Hypatia , the last pagan Neoplatonist , whose classes he had attended. Synesius was raised to the episcopate by Theophilus , patriarch of Alexandria, in 410. Since the First Council of Nicaea in 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria , per

1550-509: The Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene. For much of the Libyan civil war , Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the National Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state, but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and

1612-843: The Fatimids to the Zirids . In the middle of the 11th century, several Arab tribes, including the Bedouin Banu Hilal confederation devastated the North African coast under Zirid control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by the Banu Sulaym while the Banu Hilal marched westwards. The invasion contributed to the decline of the port cities and maritime trade. Up to 200,000 Hilalian families migrated into Cyrenaica from Egypt. As

1674-712: The Sahara is known as the Libyan Desert , and includes the Great Sand Sea and the Calanshio Sand Sea . The Libyan Desert is home to a few oases , including Awjila and Jaghbub . The Berbers were the earliest recorded inhabitants of Cyrenaica. Egyptian records mention that during the New Kingdom of Egypt (thirteenth century BC), the Libu and Meshwesh tribes of Cyrenaica made frequent incursions into Egypt. Cyrenaica

1736-553: The area came to be known as Barqa , after the city of Barca . Cyrenaica became an Italian colony in 1911 . After the 1934 formation of Italian Libya , the Cyrenaica province was designated as one of the three primary provinces of the country . During World War II, it fell under British military and civil administration from 1943 until 1951, and finally in the Kingdom of Libya from 1951 until 1963. The region that used to be Cyrenaica officially until 1963 has formed several shabiyat ,

1798-520: The area include Mirbeck's oak ( Quercus canariensis ), downy oak ( Quercus pubescens ), pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ), sessile oak ( Quercus petraea ), Quercus estremadurensis , Quercus × cerrioides , kermes oak ( Quercus coccifera ) and Lusitanian oak ( Quercus lusitanica ). In the Eastern Mediterranean , oak rangelands are still common landscape elements in Greece, Anatolia and

1860-563: The city of Cyrene ), is the eastern region of Libya . Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the 16th and 25th meridians east, including the Kufra District . The coastal region, also known as Pentapolis ("Five Cities") in antiquity , was part of the Roman province of Crete and Cyrenaica , later divided into Libya Pentapolis and Libya Sicca . During the Islamic period,

1922-551: The continent during the Middle Ages , but have since declined. Traditionally, they have been considered purely anthropogenic landscapes, the result of human clearing of virgin forest since the beginning of the European Neolithic . However, according to proponents of the controversial wood-pasture hypothesis , they can be viewed as functional analogs to the oak savannas that may have naturally covered large parts of Europe during

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1984-555: The early Holocene . After the Industrial Revolution and the accompanying intensification of land use, they became rarer and were displaced by forests, open croplands, pastures, and meadows. Today, they are largely confined to small patches in western and central Europe, while intact forest pastures are still found in eastern Europe, especially Romania. In the Mediterranean region, oak savannas are still widespread, especially on

2046-445: The evolution of conservation strategies. This study illuminates the critical role of managing understory vegetation for ecological health, integrating seamlessly with the natural fire regimes that shaped these ecosystems. These findings underscore the importance of preserving the intricate balance between fire, vegetation, and wildlife that defines the oak savanna's unique ecological identity. The understory flourishes from exposure, as

2108-491: The findings of Victoria A. Nuzzo, since there is much variation per state, other names used for the Midwestern oak savanna are oak opening, scrub prairie, oak barrens, and brush savanna. The bur oak ( Quercus macrocarpa ) is the dominant species in northern oak savannas, although black oak ( Quercus velutina ), white oak ( Quercus alba ), and Hill's oak ( Quercus ellipsoidalis ) are sometimes present. The dominant tree in

2170-477: The fire cycle. Thus surviving pockets of savanna typically became less like savannas and more like forests or thickets. Many oak savanna plant and animal species became extinct or rare. However, a lack of generalized terminology or documentation in historical records has made it difficult to know about the past state of oak savannas. Large areas of the Oak Savanna are affected by woody plant encroachment . With

2232-535: The flocks and herds of the local Bedouins . Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops. The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that

2294-477: The forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007. The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by the Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe , a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-arid Sahara . The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by

2356-522: The greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of the Hellenistic style . The Cyrenaics , a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. Other notable natives of Cyrene were

2418-648: The macro and microecological pressures impacting oak savanna preservation. Many sites are protected and maintained by government bodies or non-profit organizations such as The Nature Conservancy , the Wisconsin and Minnesota Departments of Natural Resources, and the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation . In the midwest, about only 30,000 acres total of oak savanna still exist. The savannas that remain are fairly small at about 100 acres and this rarity has caused them to be categorized as “globally imperilled”. It

2480-619: The military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrifate existed until the Italian invasion. The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 and declared it an Italian protectorate on 15 October 1912. Three days later, the Ottoman Empire officially ceded the province to the Kingdom of Italy . On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica

2542-533: The names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus. Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria . Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command of Amr ibn al-As during

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2604-671: The oak savanna ecosystem, emphasizing that successful restoration efforts must account for the complexity of biological relationships. Similarly, the study by Hsiao et al. (2024) on the impact of vegetation and geology on soil nutrient storage in juniper–oak savannas emphasizes the need to consider soil health in restoration efforts. Restoration work in the US began in the 1970s in Illinois, followed by work in Wisconsin, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota. The Bald Hill Natural Area in Corvallis, Oregon ,

2666-449: The oak savannas to a fraction of their former expanse; they currently exist in many fragmented pockets throughout their native range. Valadi et al. have explored the conflicting edge influences on herbaceous species in oak savannas, shedding light on the complex interactions that impact the distribution and conservation status of these ecosystems today. This research underscores the need for nuanced conservation strategies that address both

2728-457: The oaks tend to be scattered, making for a less dense canopy. Fires contain the oak population, as too much shade would eliminate the grasses underneath. The most fire-tolerant of the oak species is the bur oak ( Quercus macrocarpa ), which is especially common in hill-country savannas in the Midwest. European settlers cleared much of the savanna for agricultural use. In addition, they suppressed

2790-546: The other a mixed maquis in which the endemic Arbutus pavarii is prominent, and forests of Cupressus sempervirens , Juniperus phoenicea, Olea europaea , Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua, and Pinus halepensis . Areas of red soil are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops of wheat and barley from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to

2852-542: The poet Callimachus and the mathematicians Theodorus and Eratosthenes . In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, the Achaemenid (Persian) army of Cambyses II seized the Pentapolis, and established a satrapy (Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries. The Persians were followed by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, who received tribute from the cities after taking Egypt. The Pentapolis

2914-403: The predominant species. Small areas of maquis are found on north-facing slopes near the sea, becoming more extensive on the lower plateau. Juniperus phoenicea , Pistacia lentiscus , Quercus coccifera and Ceratonia siliqua are common tree and large shrub species in the maquis. The upper plateau includes areas of garrigue, two maquis communities, one dominated by Pistacia lentiscus and

2976-400: The province, with no major population centers, was called Marmarica ; the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities: Cyrene (near the modern village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe or Taucheira (Tocra), Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi ), Balagrae ( Bayda ) and Barce ( Marj ) – of which the chief

3038-595: The resident Bedouins to accept their suzerainty indirectly while paying taxes. The Ottoman Empire later claimed suzerainty of Cyrenaica based on the Mamluk claim of suzerainty through alliance with the tribes. Cyrenaica was subsumed into Ottoman Libya . In 1879, Cyrenaica became a wilayah of the Ottoman Empire. In 1888, it became a mutasarrıfiyya under a mutasarrif and was further divided into five qadaas. The wali of Ottoman Tripolitania , however, looked after

3100-697: The rising interest in environmental conservation , restoration and preservation of surviving areas of oak savanna began. Low intensity, Spring-time prescribed burns have been used since 1964 at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve in Minnesota in an attempt to restore the area to an oak savanna. Burned areas are now more savanna-like, having greater grass and forb with lower shrub and tree representation, than unburned areas, but still have higher overstory densities than apparently existed in pre-settlement times. Decreasing canopy cover density

3162-454: The ruling of the Nicaean Fathers. The patriarch of the Coptic Church to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction. The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church , as the Pope of Alexandria was the Pope of Africa. The most senior position in The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church after the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western Pentapolis, although, since its demise as

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3224-418: The shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range. The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of the Mediterranean woodlands and forests ecoregion and have

3286-542: The south is usually black oak, although the chinquapin oak ( Quercus muhlenbergii ), post oak ( Quercus stellata ), and black-jack oak ( Quercus marilandica ) are also common. The flora of the herbaceous layer generally consists of species associated with tallgrass prairies, both grasses and flowering plants, although some woodland species may be present. Some of these plants can include white wild indigo plant ( Baptista lucantha ), purple cornflower ( Echinacea purpurea ) and pasture rose ( Rosa carolina ). There are also

3348-400: The state are separated by region, with the northern type including garry oak ( Quercus garryana ) and blue oak ( Quercus douglasii ), the southern type including Englemann oak ( Quercus englemannii ) and coast live oak ( Quercus agrifolia ), and the foothill woodlands including interior live oak ( Quercus wislizenii ) and blue oak as well. The oak savannas of the Midwestern United States form

3410-482: The tenure of the second caliph, Omar , in c.  642 , and became known as Barqah after its provincial capital, the ancient city of Barce . After the breakdown of the Ummayad caliphate it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under the Fatimid caliphs. The region became a base for piracy, and many of the pirates acted as privateers for the Fatimids. Around 1051/52, Jabbara, emir of Barqa, transferred his allegiance from

3472-610: The three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed. Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolitana listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees : For the ancient sees of Libya Inferior, see Marmarica . For those of Creta, see Byzantine Crete . Oak savanna Although there are pockets of oak savanna almost anywhere in North America where oaks are present, there are three major oak savanna areas: 1) California , British Columbia, Washington and Oregon in

3534-406: The west; 2) Southwestern United States and northern Mexico ; and 3) the prairie/forest border zone of the Midwestern United States . There are also small areas of oak savannas in other parts of the world. (See also Eastern savannas of the United States for information on pine savannas of the U.S. South.) A mix of grassland and savannas make up about 15% of California. Oak subcategories within

3596-484: Was colonized by the Greeks beginning in the seventh century BC, when it was known as Kyrenaïka . The first and most important colony was that of Cyrene , established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island of Thera , which they had abandoned because of a severe famine. Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos. His descendants, known as the Battiadae , persisted despite severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities. The eastern portion of

3658-412: Was established as an Italian colony , and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognized Sheikh Sidi Idriss as the leader of the Senussi , who was granted the princely rank of emir until 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934, Tripolitania , Cyrenaica, and Fezzan were united as the Italian colony of Libya . The Italian fascists constructed

3720-442: Was established in the 1990s in part to protect oak savanna remnants. At one point in time the oak savanna was the most common type of vegetation found in the midwest, but it is now endangered with many ecologists every year working on replacing the oak savannas that have been destroyed in the past. For centuries, the issue of oak regeneration failure has been acknowledged. Historical records, such as French ordinances dating back to

3782-435: Was formally annexed by Ptolemy I Soter , and through him passed to the diadoch dynasty of the Lagids, better known as the Ptolemaic dynasty . It briefly gained independence under Magas of Cyrene , stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the main kingdom by Ptolemy VIII and given to his son Ptolemy Apion , who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to

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3844-428: Was the eponymous Cyrene. The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of Ammonium . The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle and silphium , a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure and aphrodisiac . Cyrene became one of

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