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124-450: Cosmetic testing on animals is a type of animal testing used to test the safety and hypoallergenic properties of cosmetic products for use by humans. Since this type of animal testing is often harmful to the animal subjects, it is opposed by animal rights activists and others. Cosmetic animal testing is banned in many parts of the world, including Colombia , the European Union ,
248-450: A Soviet dog , Laika , became the first of many animals to orbit the Earth . In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals took an enormous step forward in 1974 when Rudolf Jaenisch could produce the first transgenic mammal , by integrating DNA from simians into
372-590: A 'mild' procedure would be something like a blood test or an MRI scan. The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. These were first described by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959. The 3Rs state: The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided. These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of legislation and regulations. Despite
496-500: A ban on testing cosmetics on animals in the country, thereby becoming the second country in Asia to do so. Later India banned import of cosmetics tested on animals in November 2014. Israel banned "the import and marketing of cosmetics, toiletries, or detergents that were tested on animals" in 2013. In 2015, New Zealand also banned animal testing. However, the ban on testing cosmetics on animals
620-718: A bill was passed to ban the sale of cosmetics tested on animals, which came into effect in July 2017. In March 2014, the Humane Cosmetics Act was introduced to the U.S. Congress . It would ban cosmetic testing on animals and eventually would ban the sale of cosmetics tested on animals. The bill did not advance. Similar bills have been introduced and passed at the state level, and testing cosmetics on animals has been banned in ten US states as of 2023: California , Nevada , Illinois , Hawaii , Maryland , Maine , New Jersey , Virginia , Louisiana , and New York . On 19 March 2020,
744-489: A broad number of 120 inspectors, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees more than 12,000 facilities involved in research, exhibition, breeding, or dealing of animals. Others have criticized the composition of IACUCs, asserting that the committees are predominantly made up of animal researchers and university representatives who may be biased against animal welfare concerns. Larry Carbone,
868-584: A cure for a disease. Examples of applied research include testing disease treatments, breeding, defense research, and toxicology , including cosmetics testing . In education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed to most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry , and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease . The results have included
992-583: A dozen stolen pets during a raid on a Class B dealer in Arkansas in 2003. Four states in the U.S.— Minnesota , Utah , Oklahoma , and Iowa —require their shelters to provide animals to research facilities. Fourteen states explicitly prohibit the practice, while the remainder either allow it or have no relevant legislation. In the European Union, animal sources are governed by Council Directive 86/609/EEC , which requires lab animals to be specially bred, unless
1116-661: A drug after they had prosecuted a company for selling products that harmed customers. However, in response to the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster of 1937 in which the eponymous drug killed over 100 users, the US Congress passed laws that required safety testing of drugs on animals before they could be marketed. Other countries enacted similar legislation. In the 1960s, in reaction to the Thalidomide tragedy, further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before
1240-412: A drug can be sold. Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used in animal testing, these studies are largely unregulated by law. The most frequently used invertebrate species are Drosophila melanogaster , a fruit fly, and Caenorhabditis elegans , a nematode worm. In the case of C. elegans , the worm's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of all the organism's cells
1364-465: A few main stock centers. For vertebrates, sources include breeders and dealers including Fortrea and Charles River Laboratories , which supply purpose-bred and wild-caught animals; businesses that trade in wild animals such as Nafovanny ; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. Animal shelters also supply the laboratories directly. Large centers also exist to distribute strains of genetically modified animals ;
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#17328560931321488-549: A finger or limb per month. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reported that over a period of six years, in the UK 78 slaughter workers lost fingers, parts of fingers or limbs, more than 800 workers had serious injuries, and at least 4,500 had to take more than three days off after accidents. In a 2018 study in the Italian Journal of Food Safety, slaughterhouse workers are instructed to wear ear protectors to protect their hearing from
1612-401: A great alternative to testing harmful products on animals. One lab was able to grow 11 different types of tissues in a petri dish. The downfall was that the tissues were not fully functional on their own, in fact, many of these tissues only resembled tiny parts of an actual-sized human organ, most of which were too small to transplant into humans. This technology could potentially be great, but it
1736-433: A hog in the eye that's walking around in the blood pit with you and think, 'God, that really isn't a bad looking animal.' You may want to pet it. Pigs down on the kill floor have come up to nuzzle me like a puppy. Two minutes later I had to kill them – beat them to death with a pipe. I can't care. The act of slaughtering animals, or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter, may engender psychological stress or trauma in
1860-525: A laboratory animal veterinarian, writes that, in his experience, IACUCs take their work very seriously regardless of the species involved, though the use of non-human primates always raises what he calls a "red flag of special concern". A study published in Science magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments. Funded by the National Science Foundation,
1984-470: A law being passed in 1938, called the U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act , enforcing more rigorous guidelines on cosmetic products. After this law was passed, companies looked to animals to test their products, in turn, creating the first encounters of cosmetic animal testing. There is a strategy used in animal testing laboratories titled the 'Three R's:' Reduction, refinement, and replacement' (Doke, "Alternatives to Animal Testing: A Review"). Due to
2108-459: A lower degree of biological similarity with mammals for significant gains in experimental throughput. In the U.S., the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated to be from 11 million to between 20 and 100 million a year. Other rodents commonly used are guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size, low cost, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate. Mice are widely considered to be
2232-415: A negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation". The following text excludes as much as possible practices related to in vivo veterinary surgery , which is left to the discussion of vivisection . The earliest references to animal testing are found in
2356-614: A practice known as bunching . It was in part out of public concern over the sale of pets to research facilities that the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act was ushered in—the Senate Committee on Commerce reported in 1966 that stolen pets had been retrieved from Veterans Administration facilities, the Mayo Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, Stanford University, and Harvard and Yale Medical Schools. The USDA recovered at least
2480-555: A reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970. In 1986, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the animals used in the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate was at least 17 million to 22 million. In 2016, the Department of Agriculture listed 60,979 dogs, 18,898 cats, 71,188 non-human primates, 183,237 guinea pigs, 102,633 hamsters, 139,391 rabbits, 83,059 farm animals, and 161,467 other mammals,
2604-423: A result, animals are not always receiving basic humane care and treatment and, in some cases, pain and distress are not minimized during and after experimental procedures". According to the report, within a three-year period, nearly half of all American laboratories with regulated species were cited for AWA violations relating to improper IACUC oversight. The USDA OIG made similar findings in a 2005 report. With only
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#17328560931322728-618: A total of 820,812, a figure that includes all mammals except purpose-bred mice and rats. The use of dogs and cats in research in the U.S. decreased from 1973 to 2016 from 195,157 to 60,979, and from 66,165 to 18,898, respectively. In the UK, Home Office figures show that 3.79 million procedures were carried out in 2017. 2,960 procedures used non-human primates, down over 50% since 1988. A "procedure" refers here to an experiment that might last minutes, several months, or years. Most animals are used in only one procedure: animals are frequently euthanized after
2852-488: A year". The first known tests on animals were done as early as 300 BC. "Writings of ancient civilizations all document the use of animal testing. These civilizations, led by men like Aristotle and Erasistratus, used live animals to test various medical procedures". This testing was important because it led to new discoveries such as how blood circulated and the fact that living beings needed air to survive. The idea of taking an animal and comparing it to how human beings survived
2976-416: Is inversely proportional to how recent the data is. Methods of testing cosmetics on animals include various tests that are categorized differently based on which areas the cosmetics will be used for. One new ingredient in any cosmetic product used in these tests could lead to the deaths of at least 1,400 animals. Dermal penetration: Rats are mostly used in this method that analyzes chemical movement, through
3100-456: Is known, while studies in the fly D. melanogaster can use an amazing array of genetic tools. These invertebrates offer some advantages over vertebrates in animal testing, including their short life cycle and the ease with which large numbers may be housed and studied. However, the lack of an adaptive immune system and their simple organs prevent worms from being used in several aspects of medical research such as vaccine development. Similarly,
3224-528: Is less clear, however, legislation in several countries (e.g. U.K., New Zealand , Norway ) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing. In the U.S., the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals . This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain
3348-401: Is no useful in vitro model system available. The annual use of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates —was estimated at 192 million as of 2015. In the European Union , vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. The mouse ( Mus musculus ) is associated with many important biological discoveries of
3472-403: Is one of the largest contributors to water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions . A relevant factor is the produced species' feed conversion efficiency . Taking into account other concerns, like the use of energy , pesticides , land, and nonrenewable resources , beef , lamb , goat , and bison as sources of red meat show the worst efficiency; poultry and eggs come out best. Among
3596-891: Is regulated to varying degrees in different countries. Animal testing is regulated differently in different countries: in some cases it is strictly controlled while others have more relaxed regulations. There are ongoing debates about the ethics and necessity of animal testing. Proponents argue that it has led to significant advancements in medicine and other fields while opponents raise concerns about cruelty towards animals and question its effectiveness and reliability. There are efforts underway to find alternatives to animal testing such as computer simulation models , organs-on-chips technology that mimics human organs for lab tests, microdosing techniques which involve administering small doses of test compounds to human volunteers instead of non-human animals for safety tests or drug screenings; positron emission tomography (PET) scans which allow scanning of
3720-435: Is scientifically justified. Researchers are required to consult with the institution's veterinarian and its Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), which every research facility is obliged to maintain. The IACUC must ensure that alternatives, including non-animal alternatives, have been considered, that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative, and that pain relief is given unless it would interfere with
3844-484: Is still mandated by law for Chinese-made "cosmeceuticals" (cosmetic goods which make a functional claim) which are available for sale in China. Cosmetics intended solely for export are exempt from the animal testing requirement. As of March 2019, post-market testing (i.e. tests on cosmetics after they hit the market) for finished imported and domestically produced cosmetic products will no longer require animal testing. Chinese law
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3968-422: Is the meat packing industry – the segment that handles the slaughtering , processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such as poultry , cattle , pigs , sheep and other livestock . A great portion of the ever-growing meat branch in the food industry involves intensive animal farming in which livestock are kept almost entirely indoors or in restricted outdoor settings like pens . Many aspects of
4092-594: Is the current research. Zebrafish and humans share similar gastric cancer cells in the gastric cancer xenotransplantation model. This allowed researchers to find that Triphala could inhibit the growth and metastasis of gastric cancer cells. Since zebrafish liver cancer genes are related with humans they have become widely used in liver cancer search, as will as many other cancers. Non-human primates (NHPs) are used in toxicology tests, studies of AIDS and hepatitis, studies of neurology , behavior and cognition, reproduction, genetics , and xenotransplantation . They are caught in
4216-453: Is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model system available. Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century. In the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed. For example, in the US, the government could only ban
4340-430: Is usually conducted in universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense establishments, and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to the industry. The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from pure research , focusing on developing fundamental knowledge of an organism, to applied research, which may focus on answering some questions of great practical importance, such as finding
4464-445: Is widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals." The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain,
4588-734: The Government of Canada banned the testing of cosmetics on animals, and the sale of cosmetics tested on animals. Amendments to the Food and Drugs Act to end cosmetic animal testing through Bill C-47, the Budget Implementation Act, 2023, No. 1, went into effect on December 22, 2023. In June 2020, the Senate of the Republic of Colombia approved a resolution banning the commercialization and testing of cosmetics on animals. In August 2020, presidential assent
4712-613: The Humane Society of the United States . The most common use of dogs is in the safety assessment of new medicines for human or veterinary use as a second species following testing in rodents, in accordance with the regulations set out in the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use . One of the most significant advancements in medical science involves
4836-551: The International Knockout Mouse Consortium , for example, aims to provide knockout mice for every gene in the mouse genome. In the U.S., Class A breeders are licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to sell animals for research purposes, while Class B dealers are licensed to buy animals from "random sources" such as auctions, pound seizure, and newspaper ads. Some Class B dealers have been accused of kidnapping pets and illegally trapping strays,
4960-506: The United Kingdom , India , and Norway . Cosmetics that have been produced without any testing on animals are sometimes known as " cruelty-free cosmetics ". Some popular cruelty-free beauty brands include: E.L.F., Charlotte Tilbury, Farsali, Fenty Beauty, Fenty Skin, Glow Recipe and others. The website "Cruelty-Free Kitty" was created to assess which brands are cruelty-free. Furthermore, some brands have participated in animal testing in
5084-540: The University Grants Commission to ban the use of live animals in universities and laboratories. Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain; it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year, 10–11 million of them in the EU. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics reports that global annual estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals. None of
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5208-521: The dissection of live animals. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". The word has
5332-728: The genome of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics , and the whooping cough vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies , anthrax , glanders , feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis , Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm , and other parasitic infections . Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and
5456-412: The 17th-century French philosopher, René Descartes , who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack consciousness . Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University , the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in
5580-529: The 18th and 19th centuries included Antoine Lavoisier 's use of a guinea pig in a calorimeter to prove that respiration was a form of combustion, and Louis Pasteur 's demonstration of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s using anthrax in sheep. Robert Koch used animal testing of mice and guinea pigs to discover the bacteria that cause anthrax and tuberculosis . In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning . Research using animal models has been central to most of
5704-408: The 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the polio virus, which led to his creation of a polio vaccine . The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years. Albert Sabin improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys;
5828-460: The 20th and 21st centuries, and by one estimate, the number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. In 2013, it was reported that mammals (mice and rats), fish, amphibians, and reptiles together accounted for over 85% of research animals. In 2022, a law was passed in the United States that eliminated the FDA requirement that all drugs be tested on animals. Animal testing
5952-637: The Guide states "The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research protocol". Accordingly, all issues of animal pain and distress, and their potential treatment with analgesia and anesthesia, are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval. Currently, traumatic methods of marking laboratory animals are being replaced with non-invasive alternatives. Meat industry The meat industry are
6076-663: The Mexican Senate unanimously passed legislation banning testing cosmetics on animals. The proposed ban now awaits approval from the lower house of the Mexican Congress, the Mexican Chamber of Deputies. South Korea is also potentially "making strides toward ending cosmetics testing on animals." China passed a law on 30 June 2014 to eliminate the requirement for animal testing of cosmetics. Though domestically-produced ordinary cosmetic goods do not require testing, animal testing
6200-470: The PTSD Journal explain, "These employees are hired to kill animals, such as pigs and cows, that are largely gentle creatures. Carrying out this action requires workers to disconnect from what they are doing and from the creature standing before them. This emotional dissonance can lead to consequences such as domestic violence, social withdrawal, anxiety, drug and alcohol abuse, and PTSD." Slaughterhouses in
6324-591: The Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965. It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals." On 3 November 1957,
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#17328560931326448-433: The U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although
6572-597: The U.S. in 2014 including 929 who were caught in the wild. Most of the NHPs used in experiments are macaques ; but marmosets , spider monkeys , and squirrel monkeys are also used, and baboons and chimpanzees are used in the US. As of 2015 , there are approximately 730 chimpanzees in U.S. laboratories. In a survey in 2003, it was found that 89% of singly-housed primates exhibited self-injurious or abnormal stereotypyical behaviors including pacing, rocking, hair pulling, and biting among others. The first transgenic primate
6696-414: The UK in 2004. Albino rabbits are used in eye irritancy tests ( Draize test ) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize. The numbers of rabbits used for this purpose has fallen substantially over the past two decades. In 1996, there were 3,693 procedures on rabbits for eye irritation in the UK, and in 2017 this number
6820-568: The UK, just 198 procedures were carried out on cats in 2017. The number has been around 200 for most of the last decade. The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species. In the U.S., under the Animal Welfare Act and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide ), published by the National Academy of Sciences, any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued that it
6944-552: The US in 2016. A 2015 article published in the Journal of Medical Ethics , argued that the use of animals in the US has dramatically increased in recent years. Researchers found this increase is largely the result of an increased reliance on genetically modified mice in animal studies. In 1995, researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 14–21 million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992,
7068-506: The USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370 (9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved. The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to
7192-496: The USDA, whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by AAALAC. According to the 2014 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Inspector General (OIG) report—which looked at the oversight of animal use during a three-year period—"some Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees ...did not adequately approve, monitor, or report on experimental procedures on animals". The OIG found that "as
7316-664: The United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and illegal immigrants. In 2010, Human Rights Watch described slaughterhouse line work in the United States as a human rights crime. In a report by Oxfam America , slaughterhouse workers were observed not being allowed breaks, were often required to wear diapers, and were paid below minimum wage. Cultured meat (aka "clean meat") potentially offers some advantages in terms of efficiency of resource use and animal welfare. It is, however, still at an early stage of development and its advantages are still contested. A growing trend towards vegetarian or vegan diets and
7440-597: The accepted theory of 'spontaneous generation'". The idea of germs and other microscopic organisms was an entirely new idea and would not have come to be without the use of animals. In 1665, scientists Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek discovered and studied how germs worked. They published a book about their discovery, which was not accepted by very many people, including the science community, at first. After some time, scientists were able to give animals diseases from microbes and realized that microbes really did exist. From there, they were able to use animals to understand how
7564-454: The achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry , and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease . For example, the results have included the near- eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation , and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan 's work with
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#17328560931327688-500: The animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray. The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement. In 2010 the Directive was revised with EU Directive 2010/63/EU . In the UK, most animals used in experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be used if exceptional and specific justification can be established. The United States also allows
7812-431: The animals it is tested on. In 1937, a mistake was made that ended up changing the pharmaceutical industry drastically. A company created a medicine ( elixir sulfanilamide ) "to treat streptococcal infections", and without any scientific research the medicine was out on shelves. This medicine turned out to be extremely poisonous to people, leading to large poisoning outbreaks followed by over 100 deaths. This epidemic led to
7936-503: The argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. However, some canine experts are stating that, while intelligence does differ animal to animal, dogs have the intelligence of a two to two-and-a-half-year old. This does support the idea that dogs, at the very least, have some form of consciousness. The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering
8060-518: The average American worker. NPR reports that pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers are nearly seven times more likely to suffer repetitive strain injuries than average. The Guardian reports that, on average, there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in the United States . On average, one employee of Tyson Foods , the largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates
8184-558: The ban, but can still be sold to outside of the EU. Norway banned cosmetics animal testing at the same time as the EU. In May 2018, the European Parliament voted for the EU and its Member States to work towards a UN convention against the use of animal testing for cosmetics. The four EFTA countries that are not in the EU, i.e. Norway, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and Iceland, also banned cosmetic testing. In 2017, Guatemala banned cosmetic animal testing. In early 2014, India announced
8308-845: The best model of inherited human disease and share 95% of their genes with humans. With the advent of genetic engineering technology, genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range of human diseases. Rats are also widely used for physiology, toxicology and cancer research, but genetic manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice, which limits the use of these rodents in basic science. Dogs are widely used in biomedical research, testing, and education—particularly beagles , because they are gentle and easy to handle, and to allow for comparisons with historical data from beagles (a Reduction technique). They are used as models for human and veterinary diseases in cardiology, endocrinology , and bone and joint studies, research that tends to be highly invasive, according to
8432-417: The body to enhance the body's appearance or to cleanse the body. This includes all hair products, makeup, and skin products. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continues to endorse animal testing methods. Re-using existing test data obtained from previous animal testing is generally not considered to be cosmetic testing on animals; however, the acceptability of this to opponents of testing
8556-609: The constant screams of animals being killed. A 2004 study in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine found that "excess risks were observed for mortality from all causes, all cancers, and lung cancer" in workers employed in the New Zealand meat processing industry. The worst thing, worse than the physical danger, is the emotional toll. If you work in the stick pit [where hogs are killed] for any period of time—that let's [sic] you kill things but doesn't let you care. You may look
8680-631: The decision to individual companies. Animal testing is required when the product contains newly-developed tar colours , ultraviolet ray protective ingredients or preservatives, and when the amount of any ingredient regulated in terms of how much can be added is increased. Japanese brands such as Shiseido and Mandom have ended much, but not all, of their animal testing. However, most other leading cosmetics companies in Japan still test on animals. São Paulo in Brazil banned cosmetic animal testing in 2014. In June 2023,
8804-401: The delivery of antitoxin in the 1925 serum run to Nome . The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States. Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as Frederick Banting 's research in dogs, which determined that
8928-462: The disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed. Biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, and care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another. However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with
9052-462: The disease worked, and the effects it could potentially have on the human body. All of this has led up to something a bit more recent, the use of animals to test beauty products. This has become a very controversial topic in recent years. There are various people who are extremely against the use of animals for this purpose, and for a good reason. "Typically, animal tests for cosmetics include skin and eye irritation tests where chemicals are rubbed onto
9176-411: The experiment; however death is the endpoint of some procedures. The procedures conducted on animals in the UK in 2017 were categorised as: 43% (1.61 million) sub-threshold, 4% (0.14 million) non-recovery, 36% (1.35 million) mild, 15% (0.55 million) moderate, and 4% (0.14 million) severe. A 'severe' procedure would be, for instance, any test where death is the end-point or fatalities are expected, whereas
9300-403: The extremely short time it takes a rat to mature, they can provide us with a complete set of organ systems, not just a paper-thin sheet of cells. Rats can also reproduce, and they do so at a very fast pace "In general, rats produce about seven offspring per litter and can reach up to 14 at times. Typical gestation periods last only a few weeks, allowing each female rat to produce around five litters
9424-629: The figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and fruit flies. The USDA/APHIS has published the 2016 animal research statistics. Overall, the number of animals (covered by the Animal Welfare Act) used in research in the US ;rose 6.9% from 767,622 (2015) to 820,812 (2016). This includes both public and private institutions. By comparing with EU data, where all vertebrate species are counted, Speaking of Research estimated that around 12 million vertebrates were used in research in
9548-401: The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Drosophila became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". D. melanogaster remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During
9672-430: The fruit fly immune system differs greatly from that of humans, and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates; however, fruit flies and waxworms can be useful in studies to identify novel virulence factors or pharmacologically active compounds. Several invertebrate systems are considered acceptable alternatives to vertebrates in early-stage discovery screens. Because of similarities between
9796-563: The guidance of animal models. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies , anthrax , glanders , feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis , Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm , and other parasitic infections . Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there
9920-488: The heart-lung machine, antibiotics , and the whooping cough vaccine. Animal testing is widely used to aid in research of human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical . This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution . Performing experiments in model organisms allows for better understanding
10044-463: The human brain without harming humans; comparative epidemiological studies among human populations; simulators and computer programs for teaching purposes; among others. The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research , in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations . Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved
10168-508: The innate immune system of insects and mammals, insects can replace mammals in some types of studies. Drosophila melanogaster and the Galleria mellonella waxworm have been particularly important for analysis of virulent traits of mammalian pathogens. Waxworms and other insects have also proven valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical compounds with favorable bioavailability. The decision to adopt such models generally involves accepting
10292-644: The isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with diabetes . This led to the 1922 discovery of insulin (with John Macleod ) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. John Cade 's research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of bipolar disorder , replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. In
10416-421: The largest meat producers worldwide are: Criticized aspects and effects of industrial meat production include: Many observers suggest that the expense of dealing with the above is grossly underestimated by present economic metrics and that true cost accounting would drastically raise the price of industrial meat. American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than
10540-458: The late 19th century, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease. The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after
10664-560: The lethal dose which kills 50% of the treated animals). Skin corrosivity or irritation: This method of the test assesses the potential of a substance causing irreversible damage to the skin. It is typically performed on rabbits and involves putting chemicals on a shaved patch of skin. This determines the level of damage to the skin including itching, inflammation, swelling, etc. A variety of alternatives exists to of animal testing. Cosmetics manufacturers who do not test on animals may use in vitro screens to test for endpoints that can determine
10788-476: The liver can detox those elements. Lab-grown tissues are now being used to test chemicals in makeup products. MatTek is one of the companies that do this. It sells small amounts of skin cells to companies to test their products on them. Some of these companies are those that make laundry detergent, makeup, toilet bowl cleaner, anti-aging creams, and tanning lotion. Without these tissues, companies would be testing their products on living animals. Lab-grown tissues are
10912-560: The manufacturing plant. In some countries, it is possible to meet these requirements without any further tests on animals. Other countries, may require animal testing to meet legal requirements. The United States and Japan are frequently criticized for their insistence on stringent safety measures, which often require animal testing. Some retailers distinguish themselves in the marketplace by their stance on animal testing. Although Japanese law does not require non-medicated cosmetics to be tested on animals, it does not prohibit it either, leaving
11036-555: The market." Animal testing on cosmetics or their ingredients was banned in the UK in 1998. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is potentially "making strides toward ending cosmetics testing on animals." In Australia, the End Cruel Cosmetics Bill was introduced to Parliament in March 2014, which would ban local testing, which generally does not happen there, and importation of cosmetics tested on animals. In 2016
11160-457: The monkey AIDS model, SIV . In 2008, a proposal to ban all primates experiments in the EU has sparked a vigorous debate. Over 500,000 fish and 9,000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2016. The main species used is the zebrafish, Danio rerio , which are translucent during their embryonic stage, and the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis . Over 20,000 rabbits were used for animal testing in
11284-463: The near- eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation , and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan 's work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as
11408-448: The need for tests using animals is negated. EpiSkin, EpiDerm, SkinEthic and BioDEpi are lab-made reconstructed artificial human skin models that are non-animal alternative testing platforms with histological similarity with native skin tissues. Artificial skin can imitate the actual human skin, on which cosmetic products can be tested. For example, using UV light on EpiSkin can cause it to resemble older skin and adding melanocytes will turn
11532-418: The past, however, if they currently do not test on animals, these cosmetics are considered "cruelty-free". Using animal testing in the development of cosmetics may involve testing either a finished product or the individual ingredients of a finished product on animals, often rabbits , as well as mice , rats , monkeys , dogs , guinea pigs and other animals. Cosmetics can be defined as products applied to
11656-411: The penetration of the chemical into the bloodstream. Dermal penetration is a method that creates a better understanding of skin absorption. Skin sensitization: This is a method that tests for allergic reactions to different chemicals. In some tests, a chemical adjuvant is injected to boost the immune system, which was typically performed on guinea pigs. In some tests, no chemical adjuvant is injected with
11780-412: The people and companies engaged in modern industrialized livestock agriculture for the production, packing , preservation and marketing of meat (in contrast to dairy products, wool , etc.). In economics , the meat industry is a fusion of primary (agriculture) and secondary (industry) activity and hard to characterize strictly in terms of either one alone. The greater part of the meat industry
11904-621: The people involved. A 2016 study in Organization indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior." A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries." As authors from
12028-596: The potential risk to humans with very high sensitivity and specificity. Companies such as CeeTox in the USA, acquired by Cyprotex, specialize in such testing and organizations like the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), PETA and many other organizations advocate the use of in vitro and other non-animal tests in the development of consumer products. Using safe ingredients from a list of 5,000 that have already been tested in conjunction with modern methods of cosmetics testing,
12152-451: The production of the diphtheria antitoxin and the 1922 discovery of insulin and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. Modern general anaesthetics such as halothane were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques,
12276-406: The raising of animals for meat have become industrialized, even many practices more associated with smaller family farms , e.g. gourmet foods such as foie gras . The production of livestock is a heavily vertically integrated industry where the majority of supply chain stages are integrated and owned by one company. The livestock industry uses more land than any other human activity and
12400-476: The same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of William Ernest Castle in collaboration with Abbie Lathrop led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains. The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries. In
12524-478: The shaved skin or dripped into the eyes of rabbits; repeated oral force-feeding studies lasting weeks or months to look for signs of general illness or specific health hazards, such as cancer or birth defects; and even widely condemned "lethal dose" tests, in which animals are forced to swallow massive amounts of a test chemical to determine the dose that causes death". This kind of testing can be vital in finding important information about products, but can be harmful to
12648-412: The skin a darker color. This helped create a spectrum of different skin colors that are then used to compare the results of sunblock on a different variety of people. To address potential issues with other parts of the human body, research companies such as NOTOX have developed a synthetic model of the human liver, which is the main organ to detox the body, to test harmful ingredients and chemicals to see if
12772-428: The strong public backlash against cosmetic testing on animals, most cosmetic manufacturers say their products are not tested on animals. However, they are still required by trading standards and consumer protection laws in most countries to show their products are not toxic and not dangerous to public health. They also need to show that the ingredients are not dangerous in large quantities, such as when in transport or in
12896-867: The study. The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA. Although the Animal Welfare Act does not include purpose-bred rodents and birds, these species are equally regulated under Public Health Service policies that govern the IACUCs. The Public Health Service policy oversees the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC conducts infectious disease research on nonhuman primates, rabbits, mice, and other animals, while FDA requirements cover use of animals in pharmaceutical research. Animal Welfare Act (AWA) regulations are enforced by
13020-561: The technical regulations include measures which provide an alternative to animal testing". Animal testing Animal testing , also known as animal experimentation , animal research , and in vivo testing , is the use of non-human animals , such as model organisms , in experiments that seek to control the variables that affect the behavior or biological system under study. This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments or habitats. Experimental research with animals
13144-516: The test chemical, or the chemical is applied on a shaved patch of skin. The reaction is then recorded by the appearance of the skin afterward. Acute toxicity: This test is used to determine the danger of exposure to a chemical by mouth, skin, or inhalation. It shows the various dangerous effects of a substance that result from a short period of exposure. Large amounts of rats and mice are injected in Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) tests that continue until half of
13268-461: The test subjects die. Other tests can use a smaller number of animals but can cause convulsions, loss of motor function, and seizures. The animals are often then killed afterward to gather information about the internal effects of the chemicals. Draize test : This is a method of testing that may cause irritation or corrosion to the skin or eye on animals, dermal sensitization, airway sensitization, endocrine disruption, and LD 50 (which refers to
13392-453: The three-year study found that animal-use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not make the same approval decisions as those made by animal-use committees that do know the university and personnel. Specifically, blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies. Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by
13516-411: The time it takes for lab-grown tissues to be useable. Animals, on the other hand, can mature quickly. Rats, for example, have a much quicker growth rate "From birth to adult, rats take about three weeks to mature and begin fending for themselves. The rodents reach sexual maturity in about five weeks and begin mating soon after to produce the next generation to start the rat life cycle over again". On top of
13640-478: The total number of procedures conducted on animals in the respective countries. Zebrafish are commonly used for the basic study and development of various cancers . Used to explore the immune system and genetic strains. They are low in cost, small size, fast reproduction rate, and able to observe cancer cells in real time. Humans and zebrafish share neoplasm similarities which is why they are used for research. The National Library of Medicine shows many examples of
13764-437: The types of cancer zebrafish are used in. The use of zebrafish have allowed them to find differences between MYC-driven pre-B vs T-ALL and be exploited to discover novel pre-B ALL therapies on acute lymphocytic leukemia . The National Library of Medicine also explains how a neoplasm is difficult to diagnose at an early stage. Understanding the molecular mechanism of digestive tract tumorigenesis and searching for new treatments
13888-627: The use of dogs has resulted in a definite improvement in the quality of life for both humans and animals. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal Welfare Report shows that 60,979 dogs were used in USDA-registered facilities in 2016. In the UK, according to the UK Home Office, there were 3,847 procedures on dogs in 2017. Of the other large EU users of dogs, Germany conducted 3,976 procedures on dogs in 2016 and France conducted 4,204 procedures in 2016. In both cases this represents under 0.2% of
14012-456: The use of dogs in developing the answers to insulin production in the body for diabetics and the role of the pancreas in this process. They found that the pancreas was responsible for producing insulin in the body and that removal of the pancreas, resulted in the development of diabetes in the dog. After re-injecting the pancreatic extract (insulin), the blood glucose levels were significantly lowered. The advancements made in this research involving
14136-433: The use of wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Most of the primates imported are handled by Charles River Laboratories or by Fortrea , which are very active in the international primate trade . The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering , and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, is the subject of much debate. According to
14260-694: The widespread acceptance of the 3Rs, many countries—including Canada, Australia, Israel, South Korea, and Germany—have reported rising experimental use of animals in recent years with increased use of mice and, in some cases, fish while reporting declines in the use of cats, dogs, primates, rabbits, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Along with other countries, China has also escalated its use of GM animals , resulting in an increase in overall animal use. Animals used by laboratories are largely supplied by specialist dealers. Sources differ for vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Most laboratories breed and raise flies and worms themselves, using strains and mutants supplied from
14384-514: The wild or purpose-bred. In the United States and China, most primates are domestically purpose-bred, whereas in Europe the majority are imported purpose-bred. The European Commission reported that in 2011, 6,012 monkeys were experimented on in European laboratories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture , there were 71,188 monkeys in U.S. laboratories in 2016. 23,465 monkeys were imported into
14508-545: The writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals. Galen , a 2nd-century Roman physician, performed post-mortem dissections of pigs and goats. Avenzoar , a 12th-century Arabic physician in Moorish Spain introduced an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Discoveries in
14632-458: Was a completely new idea. It would not have existed (at least not as quickly as it did) without our ancestors studying animals and how their bodies worked. "Proving the germ theory of disease was the crowning achievement of the French scientist Louis Pasteur. He was not the first to propose that diseases were caused by microscopic organisms, but the view was controversial in the 19th century and opposed
14756-511: Was a major downfall, 'Ministomachs that took about nine weeks to cultivate in a petri dish formed "oval-shaped, hollow structures". Research companies can also use body parts and organs taken from animals slaughtered for the meat industry to perform tests such as the Bovine Corneal Opacity and Permeability Test and Isolated Chicken Eye Test. Many companies have not made the switch to cruelty-free yet for many reasons, one of them being
14880-667: Was further amended in April 2020, fully dropping all remaining mandatory animal testing requirements for all cosmetics - both locally produced and imported, instead creating a regulatory 'preference' for non-animal based testing methods in the safety certification of cosmetic products. In 2013, the Russian Ministry of Health stated "Toxicological testing is performed by means of testing for skin allergic reaction or test on mucous tissue /eye area (with use of lab animals) or by use of alternative general toxicology methods (IN VITRO). In this manner
15004-580: Was granted to the resolution, thus effectively banning the testing of cosmetics on animals in Colombia. The European Union (EU) followed suit, after it agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics throughout the EU from 2009, and to ban cosmetics-related animal testing. Animal testing is regulated in EC Regulation 1223/2009 on cosmetics . Imported cosmetics ingredients tested on animals were phased out for EU consumer markets in 2013 by
15128-427: Was just 63. Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of polyclonal antibodies. Cats are most commonly used in neurological research. In 2016, 18,898 cats were used in the United States alone, around a third of which were used in experiments which have the potential to cause "pain and/or distress" though only 0.1% of cat experiments involved potential pain which was not relieved by anesthetics/analgesics. In
15252-486: Was produced in 2001, with the development of a method that could introduce new genes into a rhesus macaque . This transgenic technology is now being applied in the search for a treatment for the genetic disorder Huntington's disease . Notable studies on non-human primates have been part of the polio vaccine development, and development of Deep Brain Stimulation , and their current heaviest non-toxicological use occurs in
15376-542: Was unlikely to lead to products being stripped from shelves in New Zealand, as around 90 percent of cosmetic products sold in New Zealand were made overseas. In 2015, Taiwan launched a bill proposing a ban on cosmetic testing on animals. It passed in 2016 and went into effect in 2019. Shortly before the ban went into effect on 9 November 2019, however, it was noted that most Taiwan cosmetic companies already did not experiment with animals. Turkey "banned any animal testing for cosmetic products that have already been introduced to
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