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125-529: Animal welfare in the United States relates to the treatment of non-human animals in fields such as agriculture, hunting, medical testing and the domestic ownership of animals. It is distinct from animal conservation . The first known animal welfare laws in North America were regulations against "Tirranny or Crueltie" toward domestic animals included in the 1641 Massachusetts Body of Liberties . Starting in

250-495: A species binomial (estimated range: 1.5–8 million). Less than 1% of all species that have been described beyond simply noting its existence. From these figures, the IUCN reports that 23% of vertebrates , 5% of invertebrates and 70% of plants that have been evaluated are designated as endangered or threatened . Better knowledge is being constructed by The Plant List for actual numbers of species. Systematic conservation planning

375-776: A wildlife sanctuary was founded on the Farne Islands by St Cuthbert in response to his religious beliefs. Natural history was a major preoccupation in the 18th century, with grand expeditions and the opening of popular public displays in Europe and North America . By 1900 there were 150 natural history museums in Germany , 250 in Great Britain , 250 in the United States , and 300 in France . Preservationist or conservationist sentiments are

500-434: A 2009 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) , American egg consumption was higher than the developed countries’ average. Per-capita egg consumption in the U.S. climbed to 263 in 2014, the highest in recent years. Per capita availability of dairy products dropped from 339.2 lbs in 1970 to 275.9 in 2012. 6% of respondents in a 1999 Gallup poll identified themselves as vegetarian, while 5% identified themselves as vegetarian

625-469: A 2012 poll of 1014 respondents. 2% identified themselves as vegan in the 2012 poll. In a much larger survey (over 11000 respondents) conducted by the Humane Research Council in 2014, only 1.5% of respondents were vegetarian and 0.5% vegan. While these poll numbers do not indicate an increase in vegetarianism and veganism, plant-based diets and the consumption of fewer animal products seem to be

750-510: A conservation project, it is important to understand how an ecosystem functions and what role different species and abiotic factors have within the system. It is important to have a precise reason for why ecological monitoring is implemented; within the context of conservation, this reasoning is often to track changes before, during, or after conservation measures are put in place to help a species or habitat recover from degradation and/or maintain integrity. Another benefit of ecological monitoring

875-417: A development of the late 18th to early 20th centuries. Before Charles Darwin set sail on HMS Beagle , most people in the world, including Darwin, believed in special creation and that all species were unchanged. George-Louis Leclerc was one of the first naturalist that questioned this belief. He proposed in his 44 volume natural history book that species evolve due to environmental influences. Erasmus Darwin

1000-416: A dog's fighting instinct. The "bait" is mauled or killed in the process. Often "bait" animals are stolen pets. The welfare of animals in rodeo has been a topic of discussion for the industry, the public, and the law for decades. Protests were first raised in the 1870s, and, in the middle twentieth century, laws were enacted to curb events using animals. The American Humane Association (AHA) has worked with

1125-518: A faster rate than other species. Amphibians spend parts of their time in the water and on land, making them susceptible to changes in both environments. They also have very permeable skin that allows them to breath and intake water, which means they also take any air or water-soluble pollutants in as well. Birds often cover a wide range in habitat types annually, and also generally revisit the same nesting site each year. This makes it easier for researchers to track ecological effects at both an individual and

1250-810: A felony to trade, have knives, gaffs or other objects that aided in use of animal fighting. Also, these provisions were designed to close the loopholes from the 2002 amendments. In 2008, the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 , added several new amendments to the Animal Welfare Act (Pub.L. 110–246). It added more prohibitions to training, possessing and advertising animals or sharp objects for use in animal fighting. The penalties for these crimes were raised to 3–5 years imprisonment. The 2008 amendments also prohibited imports for resale of dogs unless they were at least six months of age, have all necessary vaccinations and are in good health. Furthermore, fines for violations of

1375-452: A fine of $ 15000. In 2007, The Animal Fighting Prohibition Reinforcement Act amended section 26 of the Animal Welfare Act (Pub.L. 110–22). Its purpose was to strengthen prohibitions against animal fighting, and under the provisions of the AWA it made animal fighting a felony with punishment of up to 3 years in prison under Title 18 of the U.S. Code (Crimes and Criminal Procedure). The act also made it

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1500-440: A group of leading university and zoo researchers and conservationists including Kurt Benirschke , Sir Otto Frankel , Thomas Lovejoy , and Jared Diamond . The meeting was prompted due to concern over tropical deforestation, disappearing species, and eroding genetic diversity within species. The conference and proceedings that resulted sought to initiate the bridging of a gap between theory in ecology and evolutionary genetics on

1625-507: A growing trend. The United States is a major producer of leather. In 2012, it was the world's largest producer of bovine hide, and in 2013-2014 leather exports were among the highest ever. 3.76 million mink were killed for their fur on fur farms in the U.S. in 2014. There are very few federal or state regulations on fur farming aside from labeling laws and bans on dog and cat fur trade. Americans trap and kill more wild animals for fur than any other country (up to 7 million annually), and

1750-528: A limited time, whenever, in his opinion, it is necessary for the protection of animals in the United States against infectious or contagious diseases. 21 U.S.C.   § 113a authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to establish research facilities for hoof and mouth disease and other animal diseases which “in the opinion of the Secretary” constitute a threat to U.S. livestock. Mandates strict controls for

1875-517: A multitude of other variables such as loss of biodiversity as a function of the rate of habitat loss and site occupancy to obtain such estimates. The Theory of Island Biogeography is possibly the most significant contribution toward the scientific understanding of both the process and how to measure the rate of species extinction. The current background extinction rate is estimated to be one species every few years. Actual extinction rates are estimated to be orders of magnitudes higher. While this

2000-458: A population level for the species. Many conservation researchers believe that having a long-term ecological monitoring program should be a priority for conservation projects, protected areas, and regions where environmental harm mitigation is used. Conservation biologists are interdisciplinary researchers that practice ethics in the biological and social sciences. Chan states that conservationists must advocate for biodiversity and can do so in

2125-415: A protected existence that halts interference from the humans. In this regard, conservationists differ from preservationists in the social dimension, as conservation biology engages society and seeks equitable solutions for both society and ecosystems. Some preservationists emphasize the potential of biodiversity in a world without humans. Ecological monitoring is the systematic collection of data relevant to

2250-466: A recent phenomenon. Natural resource conservation, however, has a history that extends prior to the age of conservation. Resource ethics grew out of necessity through direct relations with nature. Regulation or communal restraint became necessary to prevent selfish motives from taking more than could be locally sustained, therefore compromising the long-term supply for the rest of the community. This social dilemma with respect to natural resource management

2375-517: A scientifically ethical manner by not promoting simultaneous advocacy against other competing values. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) based in Riverdale, Maryland responsible for protecting animal health, animal welfare, and plant health. APHIS is

2500-429: A veterinarian with proper training. This amendment directed new minimum standards for the handling, housing, sanitation, feeding and other care practices. Requirements for psychological well-being of dogs and primates were made. The law also requires research facilities to be able to describe painful practices as well as implement practices that minimize pain and stress to the animals. Another requirement made under this law

2625-470: A whole is good, then every part is good, whether we understand it or not. If the biota, in the course of aeons, has built something we like but do not understand, then who but a fool would discard seemingly useless parts? To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering. Extinction rates are measured in a variety of ways. Conservation biologists measure and apply statistical measures of fossil records , rates of habitat loss , and

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2750-537: Is an effective way to seek and identify efficient and effective types of reserve design to capture or sustain the highest priority biodiversity values and to work with communities in support of local ecosystems. Margules and Pressey identify six interlinked stages in the systematic planning approach: Conservation biologists regularly prepare detailed conservation plans for grant proposals or to effectively coordinate their plan of action and to identify best management practices (e.g. ). Systematic strategies generally employ

2875-490: Is based on a new philosophy or leadership theory steering away from historical notions of power, authority, and dominance. Adaptive conservation leadership is reflective and more equitable as it applies to any member of society who can mobilize others toward meaningful change using communication techniques that are inspiring, purposeful, and collegial. Adaptive conservation leadership and mentoring programs are being implemented by conservation biologists through organizations such as

3000-496: Is commonly divided into two camps: animal welfare and animal rights. Animal welfare is concerned with the humane treatment of animals but does not oppose all uses of animals, while animal rights is concerned with ending all human use of animals. The largest American animal nonprofit, The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) , is an animal welfare organization. PETA, Farm Animal Rights Movement (FARM) , and Direct Action Everywhere (DxE) are animal rights organizations based in

3125-415: Is concerned with phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender genetic , population , species , and ecosystem diversity. The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years, which will increase poverty and starvation, and will reset

3250-423: Is debate on which metrics that money, time and personnel should be dedicated to for the best chance of making a positive impact. One specific general discussion topic is whether monitoring should happen where there is little human impact (to understand a system that has not been degraded by humans), where there is human impact (so the effects from humans can be investigated), or where there is data deserts and little

3375-553: Is defined as "any member of the animal kingdom (except a human)." 7 U.S.C.   § 8302 (1) (West 2009). Animal Welfare Act of 1966 , 7 U.S.C.   § 2131 et seq. Originally intended to prevent the theft of pets for sale to research facilities, the AWA now broadly regulates minimum standards of care and treatment of animals in research, exhibition, transport, and by dealers. It exempts birds, rats, or mice bred for use in research, horses not used for research, cold blooded animals, and all farm animals used in

3500-547: Is divided into six operational programs units: APHIS is also divided into three management support units (Legislative and Public Affairs, Marketing and Regulatory Programs Business Services, and Policy and Program Development), and two offices that support government-wide initiatives: the Office of Emergency Management and Homeland Security and Office of Civil Rights Enforcement and Compliance. The current APHIS Administrator, Kevin Shea ,

3625-598: Is important, it's worth noting that there are no models in existence that account for the complexity of unpredictable factors like species movement, a non-analog climate, changing species interactions, evolutionary rates on finer time scales, and many other stochastic variables. The measure of ongoing species loss is made more complex by the fact that most of the Earth's species have not been described or evaluated. Estimates vary greatly on how many species actually exist (estimated range: 3,600,000–111,700,000) to how many have received

3750-436: Is known about the habitats' and communities' response to human perturbations . The concept of bioindicators / indicator species can be applied to ecological monitoring as a way to investigate how pollution is affecting an ecosystem. Species like amphibians and birds are highly susceptible to pollutants in their environment due to their behaviours and physiological features that cause them to absorb pollutants at

3875-563: Is now directed at urban conservation biology. The Society for Conservation Biology originated in 1985. By 1992, most of the countries of the world had become committed to the principles of conservation of biological diversity with the Convention on Biological Diversity ; subsequently many countries began programmes of Biodiversity Action Plans to identify and conserve threatened species within their borders, as well as protect associated habitats. The late 1990s saw increasing professionalism in

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4000-490: Is now often considered a subdiscipline as well. The rapid decline of established biological systems around the world means that conservation biology is often referred to as a "Discipline with a deadline". Conservation biology is tied closely to ecology in researching the population ecology ( dispersal , migration , demographics , effective population size , inbreeding depression , and minimum population viability ) of rare or endangered species . Conservation biology

4125-953: Is often called the " Tragedy of the Commons ". From this principle, conservation biologists can trace communal resource based ethics throughout cultures as a solution to communal resource conflict. For example, the Alaskan Tlingit peoples and the Haida of the Pacific Northwest had resource boundaries, rules, and restrictions among clans with respect to the fishing of sockeye salmon . These rules were guided by clan elders who knew lifelong details of each river and stream they managed. There are numerous examples in history where cultures have followed rules, rituals, and organized practice with respect to communal natural resource management. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka around 250 BC issued edicts restricting

4250-660: Is particularly relevant to practitioners in that it has the potential to generate cause-and-effect relationships and reveal the factors that contribute to population declines. The Society for Conservation Biology is a global community of conservation professionals dedicated to advancing the science and practice of conserving biodiversity. Conservation biology as a discipline reaches beyond biology, into subjects such as philosophy , law , economics , humanities , arts , anthropology , and education . Within biology, conservation genetics and evolution are immense fields unto themselves, but these disciplines are of prime importance to

4375-513: Is similar to the medical profession advocating for healthy lifestyle options, both are beneficial to human well-being yet remain scientific in their approach. There is a movement in conservation biology suggesting a new form of leadership is needed to mobilize conservation biology into a more effective discipline that is able to communicate the full scope of the problem to society at large. The movement proposes an adaptive leadership approach that parallels an adaptive management approach. The concept

4500-468: Is the biggest influencer on how they will vote on a proposed animal welfare bill. Legislators representing the democratic party usually are the most in favor of bills that support legislation that improves animal welfare. This table shows which states have enacted bans on various industrial farming practices considered to be inhumane. According to the USDA, the total number of land animals slaughtered for food in

4625-493: Is the hard evidence it provides scientists to use for advising policy makers and funding bodies about conservation efforts. Not only is ecological monitoring data important for convincing politicians, funders, and the public why a conservation program is important to implement, but also to keep them convinced that a program should be continued to be supported. There is plenty of debate on how conservation resources can be used most efficiently; even within ecological monitoring, there

4750-601: The Animal Welfare Act and carrying out wildlife damage management activities.” APHIS aims to protect American animals, plants, and the agricultural industry by offering: The threats and challenges within APHIS' scope include: APHIS is granted specific authority under several federal statutes: Animal Health Protection Act , 7 U.S.C.   § 8301 et seq. Governs the prevention, detection, control, and eradication of diseases and pests of animals, where "animal"

4875-465: The U.S. Congress passed a Federal law against interstate dog fighting activities. The Animal Fighting Prohibition Reinforcement Ac t provided for felony -level penalties including multi-year prison sentences and large fines for each offence. Passage of this law was followed by the involvement of the Inspector General's Office of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in ongoing investigations around

5000-450: The U.S. Meat Animal Research Center , a scientific facility containing over 30,000 farm animals, stated that the animals there are grossly mistreated because farm animals are not included under the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 . In September 2016, the United States Department of Agriculture released a report on an investigation into the material covered by the Times article, and recommended that

5125-541: The USDA OIG published a report which identified numerous failures on the part of APHIS’ Animal Care (AC) unit to adequately enforce the AWA, including: The OIG audit further reported that at almost one-third of facilities, IACUCs failed to ensure that principal investigators (PIs) considered alternatives to painful procedures; the report cites this failure on the part of IACUCs as being the most frequent AWA violation at animal research facilities. In 2014, The USDA's Office of

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5250-480: The ecology of a species or habitat at repeating intervals with defined methods. Long-term monitoring for environmental and ecological metrics is an important part of any successful conservation initiative. Unfortunately, long-term data for many species and habitats is not available in many cases. A lack of historical data on species populations , habitats, and ecosystems means that any current or future conservation work will have to make assumptions to determine if

5375-441: The environment , that there was a civic duty to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir James Ranald Martin was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for

5500-665: The mountain gorilla and establish Albert National Park (since renamed Virunga National Park ) in what is now Democratic Republic of Congo . By the 1970s, led primarily by work in the United States under the Endangered Species Act along with the Species at Risk Act (SARA) of Canada, Biodiversity Action Plans developed in Australia , Sweden , the United Kingdom , hundreds of species specific protection plans ensued. Notably

5625-476: The 1940s, intensive confinement and genetic selection of chickens for characteristics like growth rate, weight, and feed conversion efficiency allowed farmers to obtain chicken meat much more efficiently, while leading to many welfare concerns including painful skeletal problems. Pigs and cows were raised in industrial farming operations starting in the 1960s. Largely due to the efficiencies brought by industrial animal farming, American meat consumption (and therefore

5750-616: The 30 violators in our sample received” and that the Service “grant[ed] good faith reductions without merit or us[ed] a smaller number of violations than the actual number.” According to the USDA's report, APHIS agreed with the findings and will begin implanting reforms. On 4 February 2017, the USDA Animal Care Search Tool, a searchable database containing documents with details about the animals held by individual US animal research facility together with inspection and action reports,

5875-594: The Aldo Leopold Leadership Program. Conservation may be classified as either in-situ conservation , which is protecting an endangered species in its natural habitat , or ex-situ conservation , which occurs outside the natural habitat. In-situ conservation involves protecting or restoring the habitat. Ex-situ conservation, on the other hand, involves protection outside of an organism's natural habitat, such as on reservations or in gene banks , in circumstances where viable populations may not be present in

6000-513: The Animal Welfare Act increased from $ 2500 to $ 10,000 per violation, per animal and per day. In 2013, "An Act to Amend the Animal Welfare Act to Modify the Definition of 'Exhibitor'," added ‘‘an owner of a common, domesticated household pet who derives less than a substantial portion of income from a nonprimary source (as determined by the Secretary) for exhibiting an animal that exclusively resides at

6125-467: The Animal Welfare Act of 1966 by changing the definition of animal (Pub.L. 107–171). Section 2 of the Animal Welfare Act (7 U.S.C. 2132) was amended by changing exclusions specifically to birds, rats of the genus Rattus , and mice of the genus Mus to use in research. Additionally, this law expanded the regulation of animal fighting , making it a misdemeanor to ship, exhibit, or sponsor birds for fighting purposes. Penalties under this section could result in

6250-608: The Consumer and Marketing Service (later known as the Agricultural Marketing Service ) were added to APHS, thus creating the contemporary APHIS. In 2003, many APHIS agricultural border inspectors were transferred to U.S. Customs and Border Protection , a unit of the newly created U.S. Department of Homeland Security . APHIS is the primary agency responsible for responding to animal and plant disease(s) and pest emergencies as well as to other emergencies as set forth by

6375-676: The Deputy Administrator for PPQ represents the United States in the North American Plant Protection Organization and other international fora related to plant health and quarantine. In addition to its domestic operations, APHIS International Services staff several overseas offices, including veterinary and plant health attachés in U.S. diplomatic missions as well as technicians carrying out disease and pest eradication and control programs. On February 26, 2022 Deputy Administrator Osama El-Lissy left to become

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6500-530: The Endangered Species Act (1966) and National Environmental Policy Act (1970), which together injected major funding and protection measures to large-scale habitat protection and threatened species research. Other conservation developments, however, have taken hold throughout the world. India, for example, passed the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 . In 1980, a significant development was

6625-577: The HMSA is questionable. The law lacks a general enforcement mechanism - its original enforcement mechanism, the prohibition of federal purchases of animal products whose slaughter violated the HMSA, was repealed in 1978. In 2010 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a report criticizing the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) enforcement of the HMSA. Chickens, which account for over 95% of farm animals slaughtered in

6750-423: The Inspector General (OIG) criticized the Service for a number of issues including its failure to efficiently allocate resources and its failure to administer appropriate fines for animal welfare violations among other issues. The report found the Service conducted inspections at facilities that did not have any animals regulated under the Animal Welfare Act (AWA). According to the report, “[Animal Care] did not make

6875-528: The National Response Plan (NRP) completed in 2005 (APHIS Strategic Plan 2003–2008). APHIS celebrated its 50th anniversary on April 2, 2022. The originally-stated purpose of APHIS is to “protect the animal and plant resources of the nation” and carry out “a poultry and meat inspection program.” A more modern articulation of APHIS's mission is “protecting and promoting U.S. agricultural health, regulating genetically engineered organisms, administering

7000-623: The RSPB. The National Trust formed in 1895 with the manifesto to "...promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands, ... to preserve (so far practicable) their natural aspect." In May 1912, a month after the Titanic sank, banker and expert naturalist Charles Rothschild held a meeting at the Natural History Museum in London to discuss his idea for a new organisation to save

7125-526: The Secretary of the International Plant Protection Convention . As the name suggests, IES takes referrals from other APHIS personnel as to investigations and enforcements that are needed based on personnel's observations in the course of their duties. APHIS has a budget of approximately $ 800 million annually and employs about 7,000 people, about 5,000 of which are deployed as inspectors at ports, borders and on farms. In 2005,

7250-676: The Society for Animal Protective Legislation (SAPL) was founded to lobby for humane slaughter legislation, and the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act (HMSA) was passed in 1958. Following public outcry over abuses of dogs reported in the media, the Animal Welfare Act was passed in 1966. The animal welfare and rights movements grew in the 1970s with the publication of philosopher Peter Singer's influential Animal Liberation , and Henry Spira's successful and highly publicized campaigns against animal testing. The movements became more popular still with

7375-608: The U.S. Conservation biology The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology. The term conservation biology and its conception as a new field originated with the convening of "The First International Conference on Research in Conservation Biology" held at the University of California, San Diego in La Jolla, California, in 1978 led by American biologists Bruce A. Wilcox and Michael E. Soulé with

7500-428: The U.S. has ranged between 8.9 and 9.5 billion since 2000. In 2015, approximately 9.2 billion land animals were slaughtered for food; 8.8 billion of these were chickens. The total number of farm animal deaths each year is considerably higher than the slaughter total, since at least tens of millions die before they are slaughtered. While there are no official statistics on the number of aquatic animals killed for food in

7625-650: The U.S., are exempt from protection under the HMSA. The basis of animal welfare legislation in the US is the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (AWA) . The original AWA was aimed at regulating the sale and transport of animals. The AWA is enforced by the USDA , APHIS , and the Animal Care agency. Federal animal care standards mainly cover humane handling, housing, space, feeding, sanitation, shelter from extremes of weather, adequate veterinary care, transportation, and handling in transit. The AWA

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7750-405: The U.S., scientist Noam Mohr estimated that 56 billion sea animals were killed to feed Americans in 2011. In 2013, American meat consumption was second-highest among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries (behind Australia ) at 200.6 lbs per capita annually. Cow consumption has been decreasing since the 1970s, while chicken consumption has doubled. According to

7875-662: The US are also protected under the Animal Welfare Act . The United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) enforces the Animal Welfare Act. APHIS inspects animal research facilities regularly and reports are published online. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the total number of animals used in the U.S. in 2005 was almost 1.2 million, but this does not include rats, mice, and birds which are not covered by welfare legislation but make up approximately 90% of research animals. In 2015, an article in The New York Times on

8000-519: The USDA "establish adequate policies, procedures, and processes related to oversight of animal welfare at USMARC." Testing cosmetics on animals is currently legal in the US. The Humane Cosmetics Act to prohibit testing cosmetics on animals was re-introduced to Congress in 2015. The controversial practice of circus animal acts is legal in the US. In 2015 Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus announced it will phase out its use of elephants by 2018, but ended up shutting down in 2017. In May 2022,

8125-542: The United Nations acted to conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind. The programme was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. As of 2006, a total of 830 sites are listed: 644 cultural, 162 natural. The first country to pursue aggressive biological conservation through national legislation was the United States, which passed back to back legislation in

8250-687: The United States. In addition to the controversial treatment a dog receives when he has potential as a fighter, according to a filing in U.S. District Court in Richmond by Federal investigators in Virginia, which was obtained under the Freedom of Information Act and published by The Baltimore Sun on July 6, 2007, a losing dog or one whose potential is considered unacceptable faces "being put to death by drowning, strangulation, hanging, gun shot, electrocution or some other method". "Bait" animals are often used to test

8375-526: The agency predate creation of USDA, to 1854 when the Office of Entomologist, Agricultural Section, U.S. Patent Office was created. It was the first of three agencies that eventually were merged to form APHIS. In 1881, a Cattle Commission was created in the Department of the Treasury that three years later was transferred to USDA. Plant quarantine functions followed in 1912 when USDA's Federal Horticultural Board

8500-467: The area covered due to unplanned urbanization activities. Then they plant the new saplings of same tree families of that existing forest in the areas where the old forest has been lost and also plant those saplings to the barren areas connected to the forest. This maintains the density and area covered by the forest. Also, non-interference may be used, which is termed a preservationist method. Preservationists advocate for giving areas of nature and species

8625-516: The authority to regulate and to prohibit or restrict the importation, exportation, and the interstate movement of plants, plant products, certain biological control organisms, noxious weeds, and plant pests. Federal Seed Act, Title III , 7 U.S.C.   §§ 1551 – 1611 Requires accurate labeling and purity standards for seeds in commerce, and prohibits the importation and movement of adulterated or misbranded seeds. Honeybee Act , 7 U.S.C.   §§ 281 – 286 Prohibits or restricts

8750-812: The best places for wildlife in the British Isles. This meeting led to the formation of the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, which later became the Wildlife Trusts . In the United States , the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 gave the President power to set aside forest reserves from the land in the public domain. John Muir founded the Sierra Club in 1892, and the New York Zoological Society

8875-534: The best use of its limited resources, which could have been assigned to inspect other more problematic facilities, including breeders, dealers, and exhibitors.” The Service was also criticized for prematurely closing cases that involved “grave (e.g., animal deaths) or repeat welfare violations.” When the service did levy fines against institutions for AWA violations, the Inspector General's report found “penalties that were reduced by an average of 86 percent from... authorized maximum penalty per violation. Consequently, 26 of

9000-518: The biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales. There is increasing recognition that conservation is not just about what is achieved but how it is done. The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others. – Theodore Roosevelt Conscious efforts to conserve and protect global biodiversity are

9125-421: The broad range of taxa (i.e. including microbes, plants, and animals). Physiology is considered in the broadest possible terms to include functional and mechanistic responses at all scales, and conservation includes the development and refinement of strategies to rebuild populations, restore ecosystems, inform conservation policy, generate decision-support tools, and manage natural resources. Conservation physiology

9250-518: The circus announced it would resume touring in 2023 without the use of animals. The keeping of cetaceans in captivity for entertainment is also legal. California has proposed legislation to ban the captive display of orcas , and the state of Washington has proposed banning the captivity of any cetacean for entertainment. Following major public backlash prompted by the 2013 film Blackfish , SeaWorld announced in 2015-16 that it will end its controversial orca shows and breeding program. In 2007,

9375-434: The course of evolution on this planet. Researchers acknowledge that projections are difficult, given the unknown potential impacts of many variables, including species introduction to new biogeographical settings and a non-analog climate. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends and process of biodiversity loss , species extinctions , and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain

9500-500: The dealer and recipient. Repeat violations of this section are subject to a $ 5000 fine per cat or dog acquired or sold. Three or more violations could result in the dealer's license being permanently revoked. Prior to the Animal Welfare Act, animal welfare law was largely reactive and action could only be taken once an animal had suffered unnecessarily. In 2002, Title X, Subtitle D, of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act amended

9625-432: The dealer, so that the animal could be adopted or recovered by their original owner before it is sold. The provision applies to operated pounds, research facilities, or private organizations. It also requires that a written certification with the animal's background be provided to the recipient. Details should include a description of the animal, history of the animal's transfers, records, and modifications, and signatures from

9750-662: The early 19th century biogeography was ignited through the efforts of Alexander von Humboldt , Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin . The 19th-century fascination with natural history engendered a fervor to be the first to collect rare specimens with the goal of doing so before they became extinct by other such collectors. Although the work of many 18th and 19th century naturalists were to inspire nature enthusiasts and conservation organizations , their writings, by modern standards, showed insensitivity towards conservation as they would kill hundreds of specimens for their collections. The modern roots of conservation biology can be found in

9875-611: The emergence of the urban conservation movement. A local organization was established in Birmingham , UK, a development followed in rapid succession in cities across the UK, then overseas. Although perceived as a grassroots movement , its early development was driven by academic research into urban wildlife. Initially perceived as radical, the movement's view of conservation being inextricably linked with other human activity has now become mainstream in conservation thought. Considerable research effort

10000-539: The end of the procedure, or if appropriate, during the procedure." The National Research Council's Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals also serves as a guide to improve welfare for animals used in research in the US. The Federation of Animal Science Societies' Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching is a resource addressing welfare concerns in farm animal research. Laboratory animals in

10125-712: The first conservation societies was the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds , founded in 1889 in Manchester as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing . Originally known as "the Plumage League", the group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in Croydon, and formed

10250-686: The founding of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) in 1980 and PETA's years-long legal battle over the Silver Spring monkeys , 17 research macaques found to be living in welfare-compromised conditions in an undercover investigation by PETA's Alex Pacheco . The 1958 HMSA was the first major federal law concerning animal welfare. The HMSA stipulates that animals be "rendered insensible to pain...before being shackled, hoisted, thrown, cast, or cut", and sets out which methods of slaughter are appropriate for which species. The enforcement of

10375-425: The importation or entry of honeybees and honeybee semen into or through the United States in order to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases and parasites harmful to honeybees, as well as genetically undesirable germ plasm and undesirable bee species. Animal quarantine laws: 21 U.S.C.   § 101 allows the President, by proclamation, to suspend the importation of all or any class of animals for

10500-651: The inadvertent introduction of brown tree snakes into other areas of the United States from Guam. Lacey Act , 16 U.S.C.   §§ 3371 – 3378 Makes it unlawful for any person to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any fish or wildlife or plant taken, possessed, transported, or sold in violation of any law, treaty, or regulation of the United States or in violation of any Indian tribal law whether in interstate or foreign commerce. Plant Protection Act , 7 U.S.C.   § 7701 et seq. Consolidates all or part of ten existing USDA plant health laws into one comprehensive law. Gives USDA

10625-966: The institution's animal care and use which includes the results of inspections of facilities that are required by law. The IACUC committee must assess the steps taken to "enhance animal well-being" before research can take place. This includes research on farm animals. According to the National Institutes of Health Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, researchers must try to minimize distress in animals whenever possible: "Animals used in research and testing may experience pain from induced diseases, procedures, and toxicity. The Public Health Service (PHS) Policy and Animal Welfare Regulations (AWRs) state that procedures that cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. However, research and testing studies sometimes involve pain that cannot be relieved with such agents because they would interfere with

10750-475: The institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of Forest Departments . The Madras Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by Alexander Gibson , a professional botanist who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state conservation management of forests in

10875-430: The late 1820s, a number of states passed anti-cruelty statutes. Many of these exempted animals used in experiments, and only twice were they invoked on behalf of animals. The first Humane Societies and Societies for the Protection of Animals (SPCAs) were formed starting in the late 1860s to run animal shelters and promote the enforcement of animal cruelty laws. The American anti- vivisection movement began in response to

11000-549: The late 18th-century Enlightenment period particularly in England and Scotland . Thinkers including Lord Monboddo described the importance of "preserving nature"; much of this early emphasis had its origins in Christian theology . Scientific conservation principles were first practically applied to the forests of British India . The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged

11125-553: The lead agency for collaboration with other agencies to protect U.S. agriculture from invasive pests and diseases. APHIS's PPQ is the National Plant Protection Organization for the U.S., and the agency's head of veterinary services/veterinary Deputy Administrator is the Chief Veterinary Officer of the United States. APHIS was created in 1972 by Secretary's Memorandum No. 1769. The origins of

11250-457: The management, mainly for economic reasons, of such natural resources as timber , fish, game, topsoil , pastureland , and minerals. In addition it referred to the preservation of forests ( forestry ), wildlife ( wildlife refuge ), parkland, wilderness , and watersheds . This period also saw the passage of the first conservation legislation and the establishment of the first nature conservation societies. The Sea Birds Preservation Act of 1869

11375-423: The metric must be able to capture the trend of the population or habitat as a whole. Long-term monitoring can include the continued measuring of many biological, ecological, and environmental metrics including annual breeding success, population size estimates, water quality, biodiversity (which can be measured in many way, i.e. Shannon Index ), and many other methods. When determining which metrics to monitor for

11500-602: The mid-20th century, efforts arose to target individual species for conservation, notably efforts in big cat conservation in South America led by the New York Zoological Society. In the early 20th century the New York Zoological Society was instrumental in developing concepts of establishing preserves for particular species and conducting the necessary conservation studies to determine the suitability of locations that are most appropriate as conservation priorities;

11625-581: The movement toward wildlife conservation . In the 21st century professional conservation officers have begun to collaborate with indigenous communities for protecting wildlife in Canada. Some conservation efforts are yet to fully take hold due to ecological neglect. For example in the USA, 21st century bowfishing of native fishes, which amounts to killing wild animals for recreation and disposing of them immediately afterwards, remains unregulated and unmanaged. In

11750-456: The natural habitat. The conservation of habitats like forest, water or soil in its natural state is crucial for any species depending in it to thrive. Instead of making the whole new environment looking alike the original habitat of wild animals is less effective than preserving the original habitats. An approach in Nepal named reforestation campaign has helped increase the density and area covered by

11875-411: The number of animals in industrial farming facilities) rose dramatically beginning in the 1940s. Animal experimentation also increased significantly over the course of the twentieth century, largely driven by the development of new drugs. Following the decline of the anti-vivisection movement in the early-twentieth century, animal welfare and rights movements did not re-emerge until the 1950s. In 1955,

12000-518: The number of animals killed has increased substantially in recent years due to international demand. The steel-jaw trap, a trapping method widely considered inhumane and banned in over 80 countries, is legal in 42 of 50 American states and is the most common trapping method. In the US, every institution that uses vertebrate animals for federally funded laboratory research must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Each local IACUC reviews research protocols and conducts evaluations of

12125-528: The one hand and conservation policy and practice on the other. Conservation biology and the concept of biological diversity ( biodiversity ) emerged together, helping crystallize the modern era of conservation science and policy . The inherent multidisciplinary basis for conservation biology has led to new subdisciplines including conservation social science, conservation behavior and conservation physiology. It stimulated further development of conservation genetics which Otto Frankel had originated first but

12250-570: The opening of the first animal laboratories in the 1860s and 70s. The American Anti-Vivisection Society was formed in Philadelphia in 1883. The anti-vivisection movement failed to achieve federal regulations on animal experimentation and declined as medical science advanced. The beginning of intensive animal farming is traceable to 1923 in the Delmarva Peninsula , where Celia Steele raised her first flock of chickens for meat . Starting in

12375-418: The original forests which proved to be better than creating entirely new environment after original one is let to lost. Old Forests Store More Carbon than Young Ones as proved by latest researches, so it is more crucial to protect the old ones. The reforestation campaign launched by Himalayan Adventure Therapy in Nepal basically visits the old forests in periodic basis which are vulnerable to loss of density and

12500-445: The practice and profession of conservation biology. Conservationists introduce bias when they support policies using qualitative description, such as habitat degradation , or healthy ecosystems . Conservation biologists advocate for reasoned and sensible management of natural resources and do so with a disclosed combination of science , reason , logic , and values in their conservation management plans. This sort of advocacy

12625-671: The production of “food and fiber.” It provides for licensing and registration of all animal dealers and exhibitors. Horse Protection Act , 15 U.S.C.   §§ 1821 – 1831 Prohibits horses subjected to a process called “soring” (injecting or applying chemicals to a horse's forelegs to accentuate its gait) from participating in and being transported to exhibitions, sales, shows, or auctions. Animal Damage Control Act of March 2, 1931 , 7 U.S.C.   §§ 426 – 426c Provides broad authority for investigation, demonstrations and control of “injurious animal species” (mammalian predators, rodents and birds.) Amended in 1991 to prevent

12750-419: The residence of the pet owner,’’ after ‘‘stores,’’ in section 2(h). No federal laws regulate the living conditions of farm animals. Based on its policies towards animals, the U.S. received a grade of D out of possible grades A, B, C, D, E, F, G on World Animal Protection's Animal Protection Index in both 2014 and 2020. In regards to legislative attitudes towards animal welfare, a legislator's political party

12875-400: The rich, soft soil has been carried off and only the bare framework of the district left." In the bible, through Moses, God commanded to let the land rest from cultivation every seventh year. Before the 18th century, however, much of European culture considered it a pagan view to admire nature. Wilderness was denigrated while agricultural development was praised. However, as early as AD 680

13000-448: The rodeo industry (specifically, the PRCA ) to establish rules improving animal welfare in rodeo and the treatment of rodeo animals. Today, animal cruelty complaints in rodeo are still very much alive. The PRCA (which governs about a third of the rodeos conducted in the United States annually) has provided rules for its members regarding animal welfare . Some local jurisdictions have banned

13125-522: The scientific objectives of the study. Accordingly, federal regulations require that IACUCs determine that discomfort to animals will be limited to that which is unavoidable for the conduct of scientifically valuable research, and that unrelieved pain and distress will only continue for the duration necessary to accomplish the scientific objectives. The PHS Policy and AWRs further state that animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain and distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed at

13250-674: The sector, with the maturing of organisations such as the Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management and the Society for the Environment . Since 2000, the concept of landscape scale conservation has risen to prominence, with less emphasis being given to single-species or even single-habitat focused actions. Instead an ecosystem approach is advocated by most mainstream conservationists, although concerns have been expressed by those working to protect some high-profile species. Ecology has clarified

13375-546: The services of Geographic Information Systems to assist in the decision-making process. The SLOSS debate is often considered in planning. Conservation physiology was defined by Steven J. Cooke and colleagues as: An integrative scientific discipline applying physiological concepts, tools, and knowledge to characterizing biological diversity and its ecological implications; understanding and predicting how organisms, populations, and ecosystems respond to environmental change and stressors; and solving conservation problems across

13500-456: The slaughter of animals and certain kinds of birds, as well as opened veterinary clinics. Conservation ethics are also found in early religious and philosophical writings. There are examples in the Tao , Shinto , Hindu , Islamic and Buddhist traditions. In Greek philosophy, Plato lamented about pasture land degradation : "What is left now is, so to say, the skeleton of a body wasted by disease;

13625-553: The use of any live virus at such research facilities. Permits the Secretary to hire up to five technical experts or scientists at a maximum paygrade of GS-18. (This appears to be one of the most prescriptive statutes that USDA administers.) 21 U.S.C.   § 114i authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to establish and carry out a program for the eradication of pseudorabies in United States swine populations. Virus-Serum-Toxin Act , 21 U.S.C.   §§ 151 – 158 APHIS

13750-459: The use of certain rodeo tack or certain events such as tie down roping or steer tripping . A 2015 Gallup poll found that 32% of Americans agreed that animals should have the ”same rights as people”, up from 25% in 2008. 54% were "somewhat" or "very" concerned about animals raised for food and 67% about animals in research. A 2014 Pew Research Center poll found that 50% of respondents oppose animal testing, up from 43% in 2009. Animal activism

13875-524: The well-being of human society. Conservation biologists work in the field and office, in government, universities, non-profit organizations and industry. The topics of their research are diverse, because this is an interdisciplinary network with professional alliances in the biological as well as social sciences. Those dedicated to the cause and profession advocate for a global response to the current biodiversity crisis based on morals , ethics , and scientific reason. Organizations and citizens are responding to

14000-403: The work is having any effect on the population or ecosystem health. Ecological monitoring can provide early warning signals of deleterious effects (from human activities or natural changes in an environment) on an ecosystem and its species. In order for signs of negative trends in ecosystem or species health to be detected, monitoring methods must be carried out at appropriate time intervals, and

14125-458: The work of Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr., Carl E. Akeley , Archie Carr and his son Archie Carr III is notable in this era. Akeley for example, having led expeditions to the Virunga Mountains and observed the mountain gorilla in the wild, became convinced that the species and the area were conservation priorities. He was instrumental in persuading Albert I of Belgium to act in defense of

14250-420: The workings of the biosphere ; i.e., the complex interrelationships among humans, other species, and the physical environment. The burgeoning human population and associated agriculture , industry , and the ensuing pollution, have demonstrated how easily ecological relationships can be disrupted. The last word in ignorance is the man who says of an animal or plant: "What good is it?" If the land mechanism as

14375-403: The world. Governor-General Lord Dalhousie introduced the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to other colonies , as well the United States, where Yellowstone National Park was opened in 1872 as the world's first national park. The term conservation came into widespread use in the late 19th century and referred to

14500-410: Was also a naturalist who also suggested that species evolved. Erasmus Darwin noted that some species have vestigial structures which are anatomical structures that have no apparent function in the species currently but would have been useful for the species' ancestors. The thinking of these early 18th century naturalists helped to change the mindset and thinking of the early 19th century naturalists. By

14625-578: Was amended eight times, in 1970, 1976, 1985, 1990, 2002, 2007, 2008, and 2013. In 1970, the Act was amended (Pub.L. 91–579) to include all warm-blooded animals used in testing, experimentation, exhibition, as pets or sold as pets. Certain cases could be exempted from such definitions unless they used live animals in substantial numbers. Fines were increased for those interfering with an investigation of an experimentation facility. Those found guilty of assaulting or killing Federal inspectors responsible for such tasks also faced additional sentencing. Basic treatment

14750-635: Was appointed in June 2013. His immediate predecessor, Dr. Greg Parham, was appointed in April 2011. The Deputy Administrator for Veterinary Services also functions as Chief Veterinary Officer of the United States, and represents the U.S. Government at the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) is the National Plant Protection Organization ;

14875-462: Was broadened to rid the law of the possible interpretation that dogs used for hunting, security, and breeding were not included in its protection. The Act was amended in the Food Security Act of 1985 (Pub.L. 99–198). Under this law, it was not permitted for a single animal to be used in more than one major operative experiment, from which it was also allowed adequate time to recover as guided by

15000-491: Was created. Between the 1880s and 1930s, these evolved into the USDA Bureaus of Entomology, of Animal Industry, and of Plant Quarantine, respectively. In 1953, those three bureaus were made into the new Agricultural Research Service . In 1971, the animal and plant regulatory functions were separated from ARS to create a new entity known as Animal and Plant Health Services. In 1972, the meat and poultry inspection divisions of

15125-511: Was expanded to include humane and reasonable handling of the animals, and required shelter from weather and temperature extremes, proper ventilation, adequate housing, decent sanitation, and adequate veterinary care at all stages in the animal's life. The Act was further amended in 1976 (Pub.L. 94–279) to further regulate animal treatment during transportation. Animals were to be kept in adequately sized traveling accommodations, and to be kept from fighting amongst one another. The definition of animal

15250-412: Was for each research facility to establish an Institutional Animal Care committee to oversee research proposals and provide oversight of animal experimentation. In 1990, The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 was amended by adding SEC. 2503, Protection of Pets (Pub.L. 101–624). This section established a holding period for cats and dogs of not less than 5 days at a holding facility of

15375-514: Was passed in Britain as the first nature protection law in the world after extensive lobbying from the Association for the Protection of Seabirds and the respected ornithologist Alfred Newton . Newton was also instrumental in the passage of the first Game laws from 1872, which protected animals during their breeding season so as to prevent the stock from being brought close to extinction. One of

15500-493: Was removed from public access, with a stated reason of protecting personal information. The removal affects inspection reports, research facility annual reports, regulatory correspondence (such as official warnings), and certain enforcement records. Information from these documents can now only be requested via a Freedom of Information Act inquiry. This removal has been criticized as substantially limiting information on animal care in US institutions, and of inhibiting access to what

15625-517: Was set up in 1895. A series of national forests and preserves were established by Theodore Roosevelt from 1901 to 1909. The 1916 National Parks Act, included a 'use without impairment' clause, sought by John Muir, which eventually resulted in the removal of a proposal to build a dam in Dinosaur National Monument in 1959. In the 20th century, Canadian civil servants, including Charles Gordon Hewitt and James Harkin , spearheaded

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