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103-429: Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241) of Iceland was a famous lawspeaker. He wrote about an 11th-century lawspeaker named Torgny , but historians doubt the account. In Sweden , this office was the most important one of regional governments, where each lagsaga (usually the same as the traditional province ) was the jurisdiction of a lawspeaker who was subordinate to the lawspeaker of Tiundaland . The lawspeaker presided over

206-478: A chieftainship, and soon acquired more property and additional chieftainships. Snorri and Herdís were together for four years at Borg. They had at least two children, Hallbera and Jón. The marriage succumbed to Snorri's philandering, and in 1206, he settled without Herdís in Reykholt as the manager of an estate. He also made significant improvements to the estate, including an outdoor bath fed by hot springs . The bath

309-515: A crushing victory, and the surviving Baglers fled to Denmark. Sverre could now take control over Viken and prepared to spend the winter in Oslo, but the countryside remained largely hostile. Early the next year, a spontaneous uprising took place as huge numbers of people started drifting towards Oslo to throw the Birkebeiners out. This peasant army was untrained and without organization and was no match for

412-464: A firm Heklung stronghold. He could therefore let his men plunder here with little damage to his cause. However, Magnus exploited Sverre's absence well. In November he raided Trøndelag and managed to seize and burn the Birkebeiner fleet. Sverre had to return or risk losing his one secure foothold. During summer 1182, Magnus made an attempt to take Nidaros by siege, but was repulsed with grave losses when

515-454: A force of skilled and professional soldiers as proof of his leadership qualities. During the early years as leader of the Birkebeiners, Sverre and his men were almost constantly on the move. The Birkebeiners were generally viewed as troublemakers with little chance of success by the general populace, who most of all desired peace. Although peasant gatherings were no match for the battle hardened Birkebeiners, Magnus or Erling Skakke frequently had

618-528: A knife—intending, she said, to make him like his one-eyed hero Odin . Before the knife could strike its target, though, bystanders deflected the blow so it hit his cheek instead. The resulting settlement would have beggared Páll, but Jón Loftsson intervened in the Althing to mitigate the judgment and, to compensate Sturla, offered to raise and educate Snorri. Thus Snorri received an excellent education and forged connections he might not otherwise have been able to. He

721-501: A long war with more casualties than previous conflicts. Most of the older noble dynasties had lost men and thirsted for vengeance. Further, that many people of non-noble origin were now elevated to noble standing was difficult for many to accept. Peace was not to last long. Autumn 1185 the Kuvlungs ( Kuvlungene ) rose in Viken. Their leader, Jon Kuvlung , was a former monk and was claimed to be

824-451: A meeting with them and Kolbein the Younger, Gissur brought out the letter. Orm refused. Shortly after, Snorri received a letter in cipher runes warning him of the plot, but he could not understand them. After Gissur led seventy men on a daring raid to his house, achieving complete surprise. Snorri Sturluson was assassinated in his house at Reykholt in autumn of 1241. It is not clear that he

927-578: A reply from Rome. In a letter dated 15 June 1194, Pope Celestine III laid out the foundational rights of the Norwegian Church supporting Eirik on every point. Empowered by this letter, Eirik could take the step of excommunicating Sverre and order the Norwegian bishops to join him in exile in Denmark. The following spring, Sverre sent the still loyal Tore, bishop of Hamar , to Rome to plead his case before

1030-459: A resolution of the Althing , where Snorri exerted much influence due to his political ties and legal acumen. In 1220, Snorri returned to Iceland and by 1222 was back as law speaker of the Althing, which he held this time until 1232. The basis of his election was entirely his fame as a poet. Politically he was the king's spokesman, supporting union with Norway, a platform that acquired him enemies among

1133-556: A sign that he was destined for greater things. Further, in 1175, his mother revealed that Sverre was really the son of King Sigurd Munn . In the following year, Sverre travelled to Norway to seek his destiny. The tale told in Sverre's saga is the official version. Historians have questioned the veracity of it, especially with regard to Sverre's alleged paternity. Some historians have considered his claim to be King Sigurd's son to be false, as did many of his contemporaries. Others have believed

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1236-446: A third of it each summer. In fact, Grímr Svertingsson's term was cut short, not because of incompetence or illness, but because his voice was too weak for the job. Apart from his function as a lawsayer and chairman of the court, the lǫgsǫgumaðr had no formal power, but he would often be appointed as an arbitrator in the frequently arising disputes. The office lingered on for a few years in the transitional period after 1262, after which it

1339-514: A while until their commander Torstein Kugad changed sides and let the Baglers into the castle. The Baglers had Sverresborg completely dismantled. Sverre's home region was now in enemy hands. The year 1198 was to be the nadir of Sverre's fortunes. In May Sverre launched his attempt to recapture Trøndelag. This time Sverre failed to achieve surprise and the Birkebeiner fleet consisted mostly of smaller ships. In

1442-464: Is Eskil (c. 1175–1227), the seventeenth in Laurentius's list. From the mid-13th century and onwards, the lawspeakers became more attached to the king, and it was common that lawspeakers were members of the king's council. King Magnus Eriksson decided that the king would influence the appointment of the lawspeakers. Six nobles and six yeomen would in consultation with two clergymen appoint three men from

1545-456: Is his biography , the Sverris saga , in part written while Sverre was alive. This saga is likely biased , since the foreword states that part was written under Sverre's direct sponsorship. Correspondence between the pope and the Norwegian bishops can be used as an alternate source when it comes to church affairs. The saga and the letters mostly agree about the hard facts. Supposedly, King Sverre

1648-901: Is often taken to be the author of Egil's Saga . He was assassinated in 1241 by men claiming to be agents of the King of Norway. Snorri Sturluson was born in Hvammur í Dölum  [ is ] (commonly transliterated as Hvamm or Hvammr) as a member of the wealthy and powerful Sturlungar clan of the Icelandic Commonwealth , in AD 1179. His parents were Sturla Þórðarson the Elder of Hvammur (also known as Hvamm-Sturla) and his second wife, Guðný Böðvarsdóttir . He had two older brothers, Þórðr ( b.  1165 ) and Sighvatr Sturluson ( b.  1170 ), two sisters, Helga and Vigdís, and nine half-siblings . Snorri

1751-536: The Decretum Gratiani and the writings of Augustine of Hippo , the author attempted to prove that the excommunication of Sverre was unjust and thus not binding. The author also tried to defend the right of Sverre to appoint bishops. To support this view he had to interpret Norwegian law, since the Church had long considered this to be simony . By now Sverre had his hands full with the church-supported Bagler rising, and

1854-485: The Gylfaginning to Spanish , providing a biographic account of Snorri at the prologue. "Nine worlds I remember", one of the epigraphs to chapter IV of Carl Sagan 's Cosmos , is a quotation from Snorri's Edda . In Norwegian Sverre I of Norway Sverre Sigurdsson ( Old Norse : Sverrir Sigurðarson ) (c. 1145/1151 – 9 March 1202) was the king of Norway from 1184 to 1202. Many consider him one of

1957-415: The things , worked as a judge and formulated the laws that had been decided by the people. The lawspeaker was obliged to memorize the law and to recite it at the thing . He was also responsible for the administration at the thing and for the execution of the decisions, and it was his duty to safeguard the rights and liberties of the people and to speak in their behalf to the king or his representative. It

2060-579: The Battle of Hatthammeren ( Slaget på Hatthammeren ). After fleeing south, they met Magnus' army in Ringerike , with the skirmish ending in a tactical victory for the Birkebeiners. Encouraged, the Birkebeiners returned to Trøndelag and managed to subdue the region enough to stay in Nidaros during the winter. In the spring of 1179, Magnus and Erling Skakke attacked Nidaros, forcing another apparent retreat. Confident that

2163-450: The lagtings (the Norwegian superior courts). Modern historians regard the lawspeakers in ancient times (especially before around 1600), of which there were 10–12 in the entire kingdom, as part of the nobility . In the 14th and 15th centuries they were usually recruited from the existing higher nobility, with some holding the rank of knight, the highest rank of nobility in the kingdom. In the 16th century they were still usually recruited from

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2266-522: The priesthood and was ordained . The priest school of Kirkjubøur must have been of a high standard, for Sverre was later described as very well educated. The legend says that he was hidden in a cave near the village. This cave actually exists and gave the mountain Sverrahola (303 m, "Sverre's cave") on the south tip of Streymoy its name. Sverre, however, was not suited for a priestly life. The saga states that he had several dreams which he interpreted as

2369-571: The shield wall had been preferred. This made the Birkebeiners more mobile and adaptable. According to the saga, Sverre was born in 1151 to Gunnhild and her husband Unås, a comb maker from the Faroes . When Sverre was five, the family moved to the Faroes where Sverre was raised in the household of Unås' brother Roe , bishop of the Faroes on Kirkjubøargarður in Kirkjubøur . It was here that Sverre studied for

2472-524: The Øyskjeggene (the Isle Beards). This group's pretender to the throne was Sigurd , a child claimed to be the bastard son of Magnus Erlingsson. The real leader was Hallkjell Jonsson who was Magnus' brother-in-law. Conspiring with the earl of Orkney , Harald Maddadsson , Hallkjell gathered most of his men on the Orkney and Shetland Islands , hence the name of the group. After establishing themselves in Viken,

2575-525: The 20th century and to date has been colored by the historical views adopted when Iceland sought to sever its ties with Denmark , any revision of which still has strong nationalistic sentiments to contend with. To serve such views, Snorri and other leading Icelanders of his time are sometimes judged with an element of presentism , drawing on concepts that came into vogue only centuries later, such as state , independence , sovereignty , and nation . Jorge Luis Borges and María Kodama studied and translated

2678-584: The Archbishopric of Nidaros in 1152. Øystein Erlendsson, who had become archbishop in 1161, had been one of Magnus Erlingsson's main supporters. In return, the church had secured its position as an independent institution and also gained several other privileges. Øystein had returned to Nidaros from England in 1183, and during his last years a state of truce existed between church and king. When Øystein died on 26 January 1188, Eirik Ivarsson , bishop of Stavanger ,

2781-518: The Baglers now changed sides again. Sverre was also able to play on the Baglers' brutality at Bergen. The Trønders promised to provide Sverre with a new fleet, in all 8 large ships were constructed and several transport ships were converted. The Baglers sailed into the Trondheimsfjord in early June. On 18 June 1199 the two fleets met at the Battle of Strindafjord ( slaget på Strindfjorden ). Here Sverre won

2884-418: The Birkebeiner on the run. In June 1177, Sverre first led his men to Trøndelag where Sverre was proclaimed as king at Øretinget . Since this was the traditional place to choose a king, the event carried important symbolic weight. The Birkebeiners then moved south to Hadeland , where they were forced northwards again. Sverre then decided to turn west, attempting to take Bergen by surprise. At Voss , however,

2987-500: The Birkebeiners a secure base of operation. The following summer was to be called the "Bergen's summer" and was dominated by indecisive skirmishing in the Bergen area. On 11 August the Baglers set fire to Bergen. The destruction was complete, even the churches were burnt down. Facing starvation, Sverre slipped away with most of his men to Trøndelag. In Trøndelag, most of the population was still loyal to Sverre, and many of those who had joined

3090-471: The Birkebeiners had again fled southwards, Magnus and his men were complacent. Sverre, however, had turned around at Gauldal and marched again upon the city. The two armies met 19 June in the Battle of Kalvskinnet . Erling Skakke was killed in a battle that ended in a clear victory for Sverre. This victory secured Sverre's hold on Trøndelag. After Sverre's victory at Kalvskinnet, the war changed somewhat in character. The Trønders accepted Sverre as their king;

3193-487: The Birkebeiners had the upper hand at sea. In Spring 1201 Sverre sailed out from Bergen with a large leidang force in what would be his last campaign season. With this army he could demand war taxes without opposition on both sides of the Oslofjord during the summer. In September he set up camp at Tønsberg and laid siege to Tønsberg Fortress , which was garrisoned by Reidar Sendemann and his men. The siege dragged on because

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3296-473: The Birkebeiners launched a surprise night attack. Sverre now started an extensive shipbuilding program. Without a fleet, he could have no hopes of expanding his influence further south. In spring 1183 Sverre attacked Bergen with parts of his new fleet. Avoiding detection by the enemy scouts, he caught the Heklungs off guard, seizing their entire fleet. Magnus fled to Denmark, leaving crown and sceptre behind. In

3399-483: The Birkebeiners met a crushing defeat at the Battle of Re and Øystein fell. Sverre met with the remnants in Värmland . After some initial doubts, Sverre let himself be persuaded to become the Birkebeiners' next leader. Upon Sverre's initial contact, the Birkebeiners had been reduced to a ragtag army of brigands and vagabonds with no more than 70 men, according to the saga. Many regard Sverre's achievement of forging them into

3502-470: The Birkebeiners were ambushed by the local peasants. Although the Birkebeiners were victorious, the surprise element on Bergen was eliminated, forcing the group eastwards again. After almost freezing to death on Sognefjell , they wintered in Østerdal . The next spring, after a short stay in Viken, Sverre and the Birkebeiners returned to Trøndelag. The Birkebeiners now shifted to a more confrontational strategy. However, an attack on Nidaros ended in defeat at

3605-517: The Birkebeiners; the Heklungs fled when Magnus was mistakenly believed to have been killed. With his men in poor shape, Sverre decided to withdraw to Trøndelag. Some attempts at negotiation were now made, but these soon broke down. Magnus would not accept Sverre as co-king with equal status, and Sverre could not accept becoming Magnus' vassal. With Magnus controlling western Norway from his seat at Bergen, it became problematic for Sverre to keep his men supplied. Sverre therefore led his men south to Viken,

3708-403: The Heklungs were again defeated and Magnus fled to Denmark . With Magnus out of the country, Sverre could sail south and occupy Bergen, but his hold on the region remained weak. Determined to achieve a decisive victory against the Birkebeiners, Magnus returned with his fleet the next year. The two forces met at sea 31 May 1181 in the Battle of Nordnes . The battle ended in a tactical victory for

3811-478: The Icelandic commonwealth and a position of high respect. In the summer of 1218, he left the lawspeaker position and sailed to Norway , by royal invitation. There he became well acquainted with the teenage King Hákon Hákonarson and his co-regent, Jarl Skúli . He spent the winter as house guest of the jarl. They showered gifts upon him, including the ship in which he sailed, and he in return wrote poetry about them. In

3914-691: The Swedes, as their ally party in Norway needed a new leader and had chosen Sverre. Sverre was not the Earl's first choice, however. They had first supported Øystein Møyla , who had died at the Battle of Re in 1177. The Swedish dynastic lines were themselves engaged in civil war, and the current rulers of the family after King Erik were at war with the Danish king Valdemar. Erling Skakke had submitted to Valdemar some decades earlier, and it

4017-446: The archbishop's guard was limited to 30 men. Rather than submit to the king's will, Eirik fled to Lund where the Danish archbishop had his seat. From there he sent a delegation to Rome asking the pope for advice. With the archbishop absent, Sverre tightened his grip on the bishops, and on Nikolas Arnesson in particular. Nikolas was the half-brother of Inge Krokrygg and had become bishop of Oslo in 1190 against Sverre's wish. After

4120-447: The battle-hardened Birkebeiners. In a battle on 6 March 1200 the peasants were defeated piecemeal. However, the Birkebeiners' grip on the region was still weak, and Sverre decided to sail back to Bergen. With Sverre gone, the Baglers could return in force from Denmark and soon they had re-established their hold on Eastern Norway. The two sides then spent a year raiding each other's territories with no lasting gains for either side, although

4223-491: The castle, were forced to retreat. In 1188 Sverre sailed south with a large fleet. They first met at Tønsberg , but neither side dared to offer battle. The Kuvlungs slipped away to Bergen. Sverre attacked Bergen just before Christmas. Jon Kuvlung was killed, which ended the Kuvlung rising. Some minor uprisings followed, but these never rose above banditry and were suppressed on a local scale. The next serious threat came in 1193 with

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4326-540: The chiefs of Iceland. In 1262, the Althing ratified union with Norway and royal authority was instituted in Iceland. Each member swore an oath of personal loyalty to the king, a practice which continued as each new king came to the throne, until absolute and hereditary monarchy was formally accepted by the Icelanders in 1662. Snorri Sturluson's writings provide information and indications concerning persons and events influencing

4429-414: The chiefs. In 1224, Snorri married Hallveig Ormsdottir (c. 1199–1241), a granddaughter of Jón Loftsson, now a widow of great means with two young sons, and made a contract of joint property ownership (or helmingafélag ) with her. Their children did not survive to adulthood, but Hallveig's sons and seven of Snorri's children did live to adulthood. Snorri was the most powerful chieftain in Iceland during

4532-446: The church law made by St. Olaf , the traditional founder of the Norwegian Church. Eirik on his side preached against the king and his men, and sent letters of complaint to the Pope, but in the short term his offensive weapons were few. In 1190 Sverre attempted to force the archbishop into submission, claiming that Eirik had broken the law by having 90 armed men in his service. According to law,

4635-533: The contrary: Sweden continued actively to support the Birkebeiners and John of England sent mercenaries to help Sverre. In 1200 Innocent found it necessary to warn the Archbishop of Canterbury not to accept further gifts from Sverre. Around this time someone close to Sverre wrote a speech against the bishops, En tale mot biskopene . In this work, the unknown author discussed the relationship between King and Church. By referring to well known theological works such as

4738-458: The country's real ruler even after Magnus had come of age. Thus when Sverre came to Norway he found the prospects for a successful uprising to be small. Distraught, he travelled east and came to Östergötland in Sweden just before Christmas . There he met with the local ruler, Birger Brosa , who was married to Sigurd Munn's sister, Brigit Haraldsdotter . Sverre revealed to Birger Brosa his claim to

4841-428: The destruction of the Øyskjeggs at Florvåg, Sverre arranged a meeting with Nikolas where he claimed to have proof that the bishop had colluded with the Øyskjeggs. The king accused Nikolas of treason and threatened severe punishment. Nikolas submitted, and on 29 June, together with the other bishops, he crowned Sverre. Sverre's domestic priest was elected bishop of Bergen . Meanwhile, archbishop Eirik had at last received

4944-517: The direct struggle with the church became a sideshow, at least for him personally. During spring 1196 the Bagler party was formed at Halør in Denmark in opposition against Sverre. Their leaders were Nikolas Arnesson , the nobleman Reidar Sendemann from Viken and Sigurd Jarlsson, a bastard son of Erling Skakke. Eirik the Archbishop also gave his support. As their king, they chose Inge Magnusson , supposedly

5047-481: The discovery of Vinland . To an extent, the legacy of Snorri Sturluson also played a role in politics long after his death. His writings could be used in support of the claims of later Norwegian kings concerning the venerability and extent of their rule. Later, Heimskringla factored in establishing a national identity during the Norwegian romantic nationalism in mid-19th century. Icelandic perception of Snorri in

5150-589: The district administrative courts ( förvaltningsrätter ) also carry the title of lagman and presidents of divisions of the administrative courts of appeal are kammarrättslagmän ("administrative court of appeal lawspeakers"). Finland being governed by Swedish law wholly until 1809, the events were the same as in Sweden. However, the lagman offices were terminated and lagman became an honorific title only in 1868 (at that time laws were published also in Finnish and thus also

5253-435: The eve of battle he dismissed those forces and offered terms to his brother. Sighvatur and Sturla drove Snorri into the countryside with a force of 1000 men, where he sought refuge among other goðar. Órækja undertook guerrilla operations in the fjords of western Iceland and fighting carried on. Haakon IV made an effort to intervene from afar, inviting all of Iceland's cheiftains to a peace conference in Norway. This maneuver

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5356-423: The existing nobility, albeit more often from the lower nobility. Lawspeakers received fiefs. For example, Marker fief was by tradition held by the lawspeaker of Oslo. They were also treated as equal to the nobility on formal occasions. The historical lagtings and the office of lawspeaker were abolished in 1797, but the title was reinstituted in 1887 together with the introduction of the jury system. In Iceland ,

5459-405: The fact that Úlfljótur's first two successors have been assigned a period in office of exactly 20 summers each, but from Þorkell máni on, the chronology is probably correct; names are given in their modern Icelandic form. Snorri Sturluson Snorri Sturluson ( Old Norse : [ˈsnorːe ˈsturloˌson] ; Icelandic: [ˈsnɔrːɪ ˈstʏ(r)tlʏˌsɔːn] ; 1179 – 22 September 1241)

5562-572: The five-year-old Magnus Erlingsson as king. Magnus was the son of Erling Skakke and Kristin , daughter of King Sigurd the Crusader . In 1162, at the Battle of Veøy , Håkon Herdebrei fell and his faction began to fall apart. In 1164 Magnus was crowned by Archbishop Øystein Erlendsson . With the Church and most of the aristocracy on his side, Magnus' kingship seemed secure. Several uprisings followed, but they were all suppressed. Erling Skakke had been regent during his son's minority and continued to be

5665-478: The jurisdiction among whom the king would select the one he deemed to be most fit. This procedure would be in effect until the 16th century when the whole process of selection was transferred to the king. From then on, the lawspeakers only came from the nobility, and it had turned into a pension, in which a member of the Privy Council of Sweden was selected and received a salary, but had other people taking care of

5768-523: The king and questions of loyalty but he nevertheless managed to build up the Norwegian state from what it had been. When Snorri arrived in Norway for the second time, it was clear to the king that he was no longer a reliable agent. The conflict between Haakon and Skúli was beginning to escalate into civil war. Snorri stayed with the jarl and his son, and the jarl gave him the jarl title, hoping to command his allegiance. In August 1238, Sighvatur and four of his sons (Sturla, Markús, Kolbeinn, and Þórður Krókur,

5871-498: The kingdom and negotiated marriage alliances between the old and new nobility. Sverre himself married the Swedish princess Margaret , daughter of Erik the Saint and sister of King Knut Eriksson of Sweden. Although Norway had seen several conflicts in the previous decades, the victor had reconciled with his opponents. Reconciliation in Sverre's case, however, proved to be difficult. It was

5974-513: The kingdom together, but when quarrels arose, war was frequently the result. Sigurd Munn, claimed by Sverre as his father, had been slain by his brother Inge Krokrygg in 1155. Sigurd's son Håkon Herdebrei had been chosen to be king by his father's followers. The conflict was now a regional conflict, with King Inge having the strongest support in Viken , while most of Håkon's followers were from Trøndelag . Inge Krokrygg fell in 1161. His party then took

6077-461: The latter two executed after the battle), were killed at the Battle of Örlygsstaðir in Iceland against Gissur Þorvaldsson and Kolbein the Young, chiefs whom they had provoked. Snorri, Órækja, and Þorleifur requested permission to return home. As the king now could not predict Snorri's behavior, permission was denied. He was explicitly ordered to remain in Norway on the basis of his honorary rank. Skúli on

6180-463: The letter was forged. With the death of Pope Celestine in January 1198, the conflict entered a short lull until the new pope, Innocent III , had brought himself up to date, but then the conflict was further escalated. In October, Innocent III placed Norway under interdict and in letters to Eirik accused Sverre of forgery. He also sent letters to admonish neighboring kings to dispossess Sverre. They did

6283-476: The long and narrow Sognefjord . The Battle of Fimreite proved to be the final struggle between Birkebeiners and Heklungs. Magnus had several large ships, but none as huge as the Mariasuda . While the Mariasuda held up half of the enemy fleet, the rest attacked the outlying enemy ships. Panic began to spread as the Heklungs fled aboard their larger ships. These ships soon became overloaded and began to sink. Many of

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6386-576: The most important rulers in Norwegian history . He assumed power as the leader of the rebel party known as the Birkebeiner in 1177, during their struggle against King Magnus Erlingsson . After Magnus fell at the Battle of Fimreite in 1184, Sverre ruled as sole king of Norway. Differences with the Church, however, led to his excommunication in 1194. Another civil war began against the church-supported Baglers , which lasted beyond Sverre's death in 1202. The most important historical source on Sverre's life

6489-554: The narrow fjords . Either because of luck or good strategy such a situation would soon arise. Early spring 1184, Magnus returned to Viken from Denmark with new ships. In April he sailed north towards Bergen. At about the same time, Sverre had gone to Sogn to put down a local uprising and was still there when Magnus came to Bergen in June. After chasing out the few Birkebeiners there, Magnus set sail again, having heard news of Sverre's current position. The two fleets met 15 June at Fimreite in

6592-406: The necessity to confront Skúli, who declared himself king in 1239. Skúli was defeated militarily and killed in 1240. Meanwhile, Snorri resumed his chieftainship and made a bid to crush Gissur by prosecuting him in court for the deaths of his brother Sighvatr and nephew Sturla. After the jarl's defeat, Haakon sent two agents to Gissur bearing a secret letter with orders to kill or capture Snorri. Gissur

6695-473: The office was abolished, but the title remained occasionally in use as a title of honour for governors. In 1947, the title of lagman (pl. lagmän ) was reintroduced for senior judges, namely the presidents of divisions of the courts of appeal. Since reform in 1969, presidents of the district courts ( tingsrätter ) are lagmän , while presidents of divisions of the courts of appeal are hovrättslagmän ("court of appeal lawspeakers"). Correspondingly, presidents of

6798-403: The office was introduced in 930, when the Althing was established. He was elected for three years. Besides his function as the president of the thing , his duties were restricted to counselling and to reciting the law. It was the sole government office of the medieval Icelandic Commonwealth . The lawspeaker was elected for a term of three years and was supposed to declaim the law at the Althing,

6901-411: The other Bagler leaders dared not send a relief force and the garrison did not fall for any of Sverre's tricks. At last, on 25 January, Reidar and his men surrendered, and Sverre decided to sail back to Bergen. During the return journey Sverre fell ill, and by the time they reached Bergen, the king was dying. On his death bed, Sverre appointed his sole living son, Håkon , as his heir and successor and in

7004-411: The other hand gave permission and helped them book passage. Snorri must have had his own ideas about the king's position and the validity of his orders, but at any rate he chose to disobey them; his words according to Sturlunga saga , 'út vil ek' (literally 'out want I', but idiomatically 'I will go home'), have become proverbial in Icelandic. He returned to Iceland in 1239. The king was distracted by

7107-460: The paternal claim to be true, while most historians have found that the paternal question cannot be given a definite answer. Although the fact that kings fathered illegitimate sons was taken for granted, other facts indicate that Sverre was in his early thirties when he came to Norway, such as the age of his own sons and nephews. It has been cited against Sverre's claim that according to Canon law , one had to be at least 30 years old to be eligible for

7210-506: The peoples inhabiting North Europe during periods for which relevant information is scarce: thus, for example, he can be used to illuminate relations between England and Scandinavia during the 10th and 11th centuries. Snorri is considered a figure of enduring importance in this regard, Halvdan Koht describing his work as "surpassing anything else that the Middle Ages have left us of historical literature". He also provided an early account of

7313-436: The pope. He returned in early 1197, according to the saga, carrying a papal letter which annulled the excommunication of Sverre. In Denmark, Tore is said to have fallen ill and died under suspicious circumstances, but not before pawning the papal letter. The pawnbrokers then travelled to Norway and delivered it to Sverre who used it for everything it was worth. No other sources confirm this story and most historians now agree that

7416-515: The priesthood. If Sverre was 30 years old when he became a priest, this would place his birth no later than 1145, making his paternal claim impossible, as Sigurd Munn was born in 1133. This particular objection has lost credence as it has become clear that this age limit was routinely ignored in Scandinavia at the time. However, other objections remain, such as the fact that Sverre consistently refused to undergo an ordeal by fire to prove his claims. At

7519-485: The sea battle that followed, the Birkebeiners were soundly beaten. In the aftermath of this battle the Baglers further consolidated their hold on Trøndelag and many went over to what they believed to be the winning side. After his defeat, Sverre limped back to Bergen. He was soon followed by a numerically superior Bagler army under the leadership of Nikolas Arnesson and Hallvard of Såstad. Sverre continued to hold Bergenhus fortress. This castle proved to be impregnable, giving

7622-449: The sea battles of medieval Scandinavia, the side with the largest and highest ships would usually have an advantage, since this meant the crew could attack the enemy from above with projectiles and other weapons. Sverre built the largest ship afloat at the time, the Mariasuda . Because of its great size, the seaworthiness of the Mariasuda was rather poor and it would only be useful within

7725-538: The son of Inge the Hunchback . This group was in many ways the direct successor of the Heklungs, with many of its members coming from former Heklung families. The Kuvlungs soon gained control of eastern and western Norway, the old Heklung strongholds. In autumn 1186, the Kuvlungs attacked Nidaros. This offensive took Sverre by surprise; he took refuge in the recently constructed stone castle Sion . The Kuvlungs, unable to take

7828-432: The son of Magnus Erlingsson. They then sailed back to Norway. Sverre happened to be in Viken, and the two forces soon encountered each other, although no major battles were fought. Sverre gave his eldest son, Sigurd Lavard , the responsibility of guarding a ballista he had had built. However, the Baglers launched a surprise night attack during which the ballista was destroyed and Sigurd and his men were chased away. Sverre

7931-570: The summer of 1219, he met his Swedish colleague, the lawspeaker Eskil Magnusson , and his wife, Kristina Nilsdotter Blake , in Skara . They were both related to royalty and probably gave Snorri an insight into the history of Sweden . Snorri was mainly interested in history and culture. The Norwegian regents, however, cultivated Snorri, made him a skutilsvein , a senior title roughly equivalent to knight , and received an oath of loyalty. The king hoped to extend his realm to Iceland, which he could do by

8034-446: The term laamanni official). In the 1993 reform, laamanni and lagman were reintroduced as the title of the chief judge of a district court or a senior judge in a court of appeal. In Norway , the lawspeakers remained counselors versed in the law until king Sverre I of Norway (1184–1202) made them into his officials. In the laws of Magnus VI of Norway (1263–1280), they were given the right to function as judges and to preside at

8137-599: The throne, but Birger was at first unwilling to give any aid. He was already supporting another group, the Birkebeiners — the Birchlegs. This group had risen in 1174 under the leadership of Øystein Møyla who claimed to be the son of King Øystein Haraldsson . They had received the name Birkebeiners because their poverty led some of them to wind the bark of the birch about their legs, instead of wearing shoes. But in January 1177,

8240-453: The time, such a trial was routine for new claimants to the throne, and belief in its efficacy seems to have been universal; yet Sverre refused to undergo it. If Sverre's claim was false, however, he would lack royal legitimacy, dooming his plans to failure. Regardless, his motivation is clear: to capture the throne of Norway, whether he could prove royal blood or not. After all, Norway had seen other claimants, since Harald Gille , whose paternity

8343-459: The two sides were now much more equal in power. At some point, Magnus' party acquired the nickname Heklungs ( Heklunger ). Hekle is Old Norse for hood and is here probably meant to imply the traditional monk garb. Several battles now followed. Magnus Erlingsson again attacked Trøndelag in the spring of 1180, this time reinforced by conscripts from western Norway. But in the Battle of Ilevollene ( Slaget på Ilevollene ), just outside Nidaros,

8446-483: The work. This privilege was abolished during the Reduction of 1680 , after which the lawspeakers were obliged to take care of the work themselves, and there were checks on the appointment of members of the privy council. Still, the appointment remained restricted to noblemen until 1723. By then, the functions of the office had become restricted to that of a judge, a function which also became less important by time. In 1849,

8549-625: The wounded and tired men could not keep themselves afloat and drowned, including King Magnus. Most of the Heklung leadership fell there, along with a huge number of men at both sides. Leaderless, the Heklungs were now broken as a political party. Sverre could now finally, after a six-year struggle, claim to be the sole and uncontested king of Norway. Now that the dissatisfied priest and his band of vagrants and outcasts had become king and rulers of Norway, Sverre worked to consolidate his power. He placed his loyal men in high positions ( sysselmann ) throughout

8652-533: The year before Snorri married Hallveig. A period of clan feuding followed. Snorri raised an armed party under his nephew Böðvar Þórðarson, and another under his son Órækja, with the intent of executing a first strike against his brother Sighvatur and Sturla Sighvatsson. It is possible that Snorri perceived that only resolute, saga -like actions could achieve his objective, but if so he proved unwilling or incapable of carrying them out. Alternatively, he might have done this as military posturing or performance of power. On

8755-557: The years 1224–1230. Many of the other chiefs found his position as royal office-holder contrary to their interests, especially the other Sturlungar . Snorri's strategy seems to have been to consolidate power over them, at which point he could offer Iceland to the king. His first moves were civic. On the death in 1222 of Sæmundur, son of Jón Loftsson, he became a suitor for the hand of his daughter, Sólveig . Herdís' silent vote did nothing for his suit. His nephew, Sturla Sighvatsson, Snorri's political opponent, stepped in to marry her in 1223,

8858-518: The Øyskjeggene sailed on to Bergen. Although they occupied the city itself and the surrounding regions, a force of Birkebeiners held on in Sverresborg castle. In spring 1194 Sverre sailed south to confront the Øyskjeggene. The two fleets met 3 April in the Battle of Florvåg ( slaget ved Florvåg ). Here the battle experience of the Birkebeiner veterans proved to be decisive. Hallkjell fell with most of his men. The Church of Norway had been organized under

8961-551: Was able to sail south to Viken with more than 7000 men, a considerable force. The Birkebeiners attacked Oslo 26 July, and after many casualties on both sides, the Baglers were forced inland. Sverre now spent some time war-taxing the region, but with his leidang troops close to mutiny, Sverre withdrew to Bergen where he had decided to spend the winter. This was to be a near fatal mistake. The Baglers had meanwhile travelled north to Trøndelag by land where they had entered Nidaros with little opposition. The garrison at Sverresborg held fast for

9064-557: Was also stipulated that his father should also have been a landowner. The office was not hereditary, but he was usually selected from the more powerful families. The first named Swedish lawspeaker, if the text is correct, is the Lum recorded in a register of Västergötland lawmen copied by Laurentius Dyakn, a priest in Vidhem , in the 1320s; he must have lived around 1000. The first Swedish lawspeaker for whom we have substantial biographical information

9167-680: Was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing . He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of the Prose Edda , which is a major source for what is today known about Norse mythology and alliterative verse , and Heimskringla , a history of the Norse kings that begins with legendary material in Ynglinga saga and moves through to early medieval Scandinavian history . For stylistic and methodological reasons, Snorri

9270-428: Was being invited now to join the unionist movement. A meeting at the Althing was arranged for the summer of 1241 but Gissur and Kolbein arrived with several hundred men. Snorri and 120 men formed around a church. Gissur chose to pay fines rather than to attack. Hallveig died of natural causes. When the family bickered over the inheritance, Hallveig's sons, Klaeing and Orm, asked assistance from their uncle Gissur. Holding

9373-400: Was beneficial for the Swedes at the time to support the opponents of Erling's regime, namely Sverre. In 1176, Norway was slowly recovering from decades of multiple civil wars . The causes were largely due to the lack of any clear succession laws . According to the old customs, all the king's sons, legitimate or illegitimate, had equal right to the throne. It was customary for brothers to rule

9476-400: Was deserted by Snorri on the battlefield in a flare-up over the chain of command. In 1237, Snorri thought it best to travel to Norway and join the king. The reign of Haakon IV (Hákon Hákonarson), King of Norway , was troubled by civil war relating to questions of succession and was at various times divided into quasi-independent regions under rival contenders. There were always plots against

9579-424: Was educated by Sæmundr fróði , grandfather of Jón Loftsson, at Oddi, and never returned to his parents' home. His father died in 1183 and his mother, as his guardian, soon squandered Snorri's share of the inheritance. Jón Loftsson died in 1197. The two families then arranged a marriage in 1199 between Snorri and Herdís, the daughter of Bersi Vermundarson. From her father, Snorri inherited an estate at Borg, as well as

9682-462: Was elected as his successor. Sverre now probably hoped that his relationship with the church could be normalised. He therefore approached Eirik with hopes of being crowned — the definite proof of recognition. However, in Eirik's eyes, Sverre was little more than a usurper and king-murderer. The situation now escalated into an open breach as Sverre began building up a list of privileges that were contrary to

9785-453: Was equally questionable. The fact that Sigurd Munn's daughter Cecilia acknowledged Sverre as the son of Sigurd is inconclusive. Sverre's actions offered her a welcome possibility to divorce from the marriage with Folkvid the Lawspeaker , into which she claimed to have been forced by Erling Skakke. Support from Earl Birger Brosa of Sweden is more a sign of pragmatic politics on the part of

9888-452: Was furious and never gave his son a command again. After some more indecisive fighting, Sverre sailed north to Trondheim, where he spent the winter. The Baglers had Inge hailed as king on Borgarting and soon established a firm control over the Viken region, with Oslo as their main seat. In spring 1197, Sverre called out the leidang from the northern and western parts of the country, and in May he

9991-628: Was given the option of surrender. He fled to the cellar. There, Símon knútur asked Arni the Bitter to strike him. Then Snorri said: Eigi skal höggva! —"Do not strike!" Símon answered: "Högg þú!" — "You strike now!" Snorri replied: Eigi skal höggva! —"Do not strike!" and these were his last words. This act was not popular in either Iceland or Norway. To diminish the odium, the king insisted that if Snorri had submitted, he would have been spared. The fact that he could make such an argument reveals how far his influence in Iceland had come. Haakon went on suborning

10094-410: Was known as Snorralaug  [ is ] , and the buildings have been preserved to some extent. During his initial years at Reykholt he fathered another five children, with three different women: Guðrún Hreinsdóttir, Oddný, and Þuríður Hallsdóttir. Snorri quickly became known as a poet, and also functioned as a lawyer. In 1215, he became lawspeaker of the Althing , the only public office of

10197-484: Was raised from the age of three or four by Jón Loftsson , a relative of the Norwegian royal family, in Oddi , Iceland. Key to his political and cultural education was his fosterage at Oddi, which resulted from a settlement regarding his father's legal dealings. As Hvamm-Sturla was trying to settle a lawsuit with the priest and chieftain ( Goðorðsmaðr ) Páll Sölvason, Páll's wife Þorbjörg Bjarnardóttir lunged suddenly at him with

10300-409: Was replaced with a lǫgmaðr . The traditional date for the founding of the Althing is 930 with Úlfljótr appearing as a founding figure and the original author of the laws. After the union with Norway in 1264, two royal lawspeakers were appointed who had an important influence on the legal processes at the thing . The office was abolished together with the Althing in 1800. Scholars are suspicious of

10403-476: Was short, so he usually directed his troops from horseback during battles. The contrast is great to the traditional Norse warrior ideals where the king was expected to lead his men from the front of the battle line. Sverre was a talented improviser, both in political and military life. His innovative tactics often helped the Birkebeiners against more tradition-bound opponents. During battle he had his men operate in smaller groups, while previously tactics similar to

10506-565: Was the lawspeaker who, on the behalf of the people, recognized the elected king when he passed on the Eriksgata . However, after the establishment of the province laws, c. 1350, he would participate at the Stone of Mora with twelve companions from his jurisdiction. According to the Västgöta Law , the lawspeaker was appointed for life by the yeomen ( bönder ) of the province from among their number; it

10609-503: Was transparent to Sighvatur, who suspected, as apparently Snorri did not, that the king was planning a maneuver against the goðar in Norway. Instead of killing his opponents he began to insist that they take the king up on his offer. Órækja's fate was capture by his cousin Sturla during an ostensible peace negotiation at Reykjaholt. Þorleifur Þórðarson, a cousin of Snorri's, was also captured. Þorleifur had come to his assistance with 800 men, but

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