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119-635: Landmarkism , sometimes called Baptist bride theology , is a Baptist ecclesiology that emerged in the mid-19th century in the American South . It upholds the perpetuity theory of Baptist origins, which asserts an unbroken continuity and exclusive legitimacy of the Baptist movement since the apostolic period . Landmarkists hold a firm belief in the exclusive validity of Baptist churches and view non-Baptist liturgical forms and practices as invalid. This perspective caused significant controversy and division within

238-562: A Particular Baptist church under the pastorship of William Kiffin. One of his means of support was preaching at this church, which he called his "cheefe place for proffitt and preference", possibly because this arrangement offered him room and board. He also offered legal services and practiced medicine in London. Most of Clarke's time in England was during the Interregnum , when rule of the country

357-582: A 2003 survey, at least half of Americans have a negative view of the Baptist faith. To avoid being mistakenly associated with fundamentalist groups, many moderate Baptist churches have adopted names such as "Community Church" or "Community Chapel" that leave out the denomination's name. This fits into a general trend by church planters from many denominations to de-accentuate their denomination's name. Many independent Baptist congregations are staunch fundamentalists, regarding all Baptist associations as too liberal for them to join. Many of these congregations have

476-525: A 2014 Pew Research survey, 2.1% of Americans belonged to Mainline Baptist congregations. These include the American Baptist Convention (1.5%) and other mainline Baptist conventions (0.6%). Independent Baptist churches are completely independent of any association or group, though they usually maintain some sort of fellowship with like-minded churches. They share the traditional Baptist doctrinal distinctives, but they adhere to what they see as

595-506: A Biblical principle of churches' individuality. Independent Baptists believe that this approach to ministry leaves pastors and people in the church free to work as a local ministry, instead of national work, which, in their view, can be less efficient. Independent Baptists are strictly Biblicist in their theology, adhering to the traditional Baptist understanding of the Bible and of faith. The same doctrinal variations that exist within (or between)

714-570: A Narrative of New England's Persecution (1652). The book begins with a letter to the English Parliament and Council of State, conveying an earnest plea for liberty of conscience and religious toleration. This is followed by another letter addressed to the Puritan leaders in Massachusetts. The largest part of the book is devoted to Clarke's beliefs on conducting a church and why he thought that

833-579: A catalog of students from Leiden University in Holland, one of Europe's primary medical schools at the time. The school's ledger of graduates includes, in Latin, "Johannes Clarcq, Anglus, 17 July 1635-273" (translated as John Clark, England). It is apparent that Clarke earned a master's degree from the concordance that he wrote, where the authorship is given as "John Clarke, Master of Arts". Clarke arrived in Boston in

952-470: A concordance and lexicon that he wrote himself. The difficulty with tracing Clarke's life in England stems largely from his very common name. Rhode Island historian George Andrews Moriarty, Jr wrote that this was probably the same John Clarke who attended St Catharine's College, Cambridge , but he may also have received a bachelor's degree from Brasenose College, Oxford in 1628 and a master's degree there in 1632. Another clue to his education comes from

1071-672: A congregation. Once they were a part of the congregation Black members would have separate Black deacons who oversaw them. The Baptist churches in America, like the country, split in two over the issue of slavery in the United States . In 1840, the Board of Managers of the Baptist General Convention for Foreign Missions repeated that the slavery question, which it never mentions by name, is not relevant to their work. It already speaks of

1190-409: A degree of religious freedom without precedent. The provisions of this charter were so far-reaching that not only would Rhode Island proceed as an autonomous entity, but the document would remain in effect for 180 years. In this charter, colonial boundaries were outlined, provisions for a military and for prosecuting war were effected, fishing privileges were secured, and a means of appeal to England

1309-533: A delegation of three men to Plymouth Colony where he was informed that Sowams was under their jurisdiction but Aquidneck Island was not. This suited Clarke, whose desire for the exiles was to "get clear of all, and be ourselves". Aquidneck was in the territory of the Narragansett people , and Williams suggested that the Colonists pay them for the land with tools, coats, and wampum . On 24 March 1638, Williams drew up

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1428-480: A few smaller associations that have never identified with any of the national organizations, as well as many Independent Baptist churches that are not part of any organization, local or national. In the United States, there are some Baptist groups that support and actively attempt to maintain the separation of church and state. At least 14 Baptist bodies, including the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship ,

1547-409: A history of employing evangelism techniques that critics consider too extreme and abrasive for modern American culture. Racial diversity and attitudes towards race tend to vary by congregation as Baptist churches tend to only be loosely associated with one another. However a 1999 study concluded only 8% of Christian churches had no single race making up more than 80% of the congregation. This same year,

1666-483: A letter from the colony requesting assistance with legal proceedings against William Harris . An important acquaintance of Clarke's in London was Richard Baily, who provided him with legal expertise, helped him draft petitions to the king, and may have even helped him write Rhode Island's charter. When Clarke eventually returned to Newport, Baily sailed with him, later providing additional legal counsel and writing Clarke's extensive will. In 1660, Charles II ascended

1785-513: A letter to Governor Endicott, making an earnest plea for toleration in matters of conscience and religion, but the request was unheeded. However, Williams did not let the matter rest, and used Clarke and Holmes as the subjects of his book The Bloody Tenent Yet More Bloody (1652). Williams gave a copy of this book to Clarke and wrote in the front: "For his honoured and beloved Mr. John Clarke, an eminent witnes of Christ Jesus ag'st ye bloodie Doctrine of persecution, &c." One positive outcome of

1904-421: A letter to Governor Winthrop: "At Seekonk, a great many have lately concurred with Mr. John Clarke, and our Providence men, about the point of a new baptism and the manner by dipping; and Mr. John Clarke hath been there lately, and Mr. Lucar, and hath dipped them. I believe their practice comes nearer to the first practice of our great Founder, Christ Jesus, than other practices of religion do." Several members of

2023-433: A letter to the court from prison the following day, accepting the implied challenge to have a debate with the Puritan ministers on religious beliefs and practices. The challenge was initially accepted, but Clarke's fine was paid by some friends without his knowledge and he was released from jail. He left the area, and was then accused by the Puritan elders of defaulting on the challenge. He made two more attempts to debate

2142-733: A master's degree in England followed by medical training in Leiden , Holland. He arrived at the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1637 during the Antinomian Controversy and decided to go to Aquidneck Island with many exiles from the conflict. He became a co-founder of Portsmouth and Newport, Rhode Island , and he established America's second Baptist church in Newport. Baptists were considered heretics and were banned from Massachusetts, but Clarke wanted to make inroads there and spent time in

2261-492: A matter of conscience, though friends attempted to pay for him as well. As a result, Holmes was taken to the town's whipping post on 5 September 1651 and given 30 lashes with a three-corded whip. He told the magistrates, "You have struck me as with roses", and he claimed to have felt no pain during the incident; however, he could only sleep by resting on his knees and elbows for many days afterwards. Much later, Rhode Island Governor Joseph Jenckes wrote, "Those who have seen

2380-582: A political decision and not a moral issue. Baptist congregations formed their first national organization the Triennial Convention in the early 1800s. The current largest U.S. based Baptist denomination, the Southern Baptist Convention , split from Triennial Baptists over their refusal to support slave-owning in 1845. Following abolition, large black Baptist churches were formed due to the continued practices of segregation of Blacks. Today,

2499-673: A resolution that slavery was not a moral or religious issue and thus decisions surrounding slavery should be left up to politicians. In the 1770s, White Baptists went on conversion missions in the Southern United States as a part of the period known as a Great Awakening . The concept of equality in the eyes of God caused many slaves to convert to the Baptist faith, however, slaves were still urged by white clergy to remain obedient to their masters. Out of fear that Black churches would lead to rebellion, white slave owners required converted slaves to attend white churches. The result of this

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2618-734: A sanctuary for Baptists who were not widely welcomed at the other institutions which were closely associated with the Congregationalist churches ( Harvard College , Yale College , and the College of New Jersey ) and the Church of England (the Academy of Philadelphia , King's College and the College of William and Mary ). Beginning in Providence in 1636–1637, Roger Williams founded a colony in which religion and citizenship were separated. This same principle

2737-568: A stake in the Atherton Company, which undermined the sovereignty of Rhode Island by buying large tracts of land from the Narragansett people west of the Narraganset Bay , where Rhode Island claimed the territory. Clarke regarded Winthrop's conduct as treacherous, and Winthrop avoided Clarke while in England; he was able to get his charter approved in May 1662. The Earl of Clarendon recognized

2856-603: A statement saying that a person could not be a missionary and keep his slaves as property. This caused the Home Mission Society to separate northern and southern divisions. In 1845, the Southern Baptist Convention split from mainline Baptists over the issue of whether slaveholders should be allowed to be appointed as missionaries. In 1872, Henry Tupper of the Southern Baptist Convention's Foreign Mission Board appointed Edmonia Moon for missionary service. She

2975-747: A study on Southern Baptist churches concluded that the mean Simpson's Diversity Index for race in the Southern Baptists Church was 0.098, with 0 being perfect homogeneity and 1 being complete evenness. It was also concluded that the average Southern Baptist church had more than 90% non-Hispanic White members. However, the 22.6% of Southern Baptist churches that employed small groups had greater diversity than those that did not. A 1998 case study found that theologically liberal congregations were no more likely than their conservative counterparts to foster racial diversity, but that instead placing emphasis on local growth, community mindsets, and inclusivity impacted

3094-798: A traditionally African American group and the ABCUSA, the Southern Baptist Convention, or the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship. According to a Pew Research survey conducted in 2014, 4% of Americans belong to historically Black Baptist congregations, including the National Baptist Convention (1.4%), the Progressive Convention (0.3%), the Missionary Convention (0.3%), Independent Conventions (less than 0.3%), and other historically Black conventions (1.8%). According to

3213-665: Is available to everyone, and others followed Calvinist orthodoxy, which said Grace was available only to the predestined "elect". Roger Williams and John Clarke , his compatriot in working for religious freedom, are credited with founding the Baptist faith in North America. In 1638, Williams established the First Baptist Church in America in Providence, Rhode Island and Clarke was the minister in Newport, Rhode Island when it

3332-511: Is based on geographical and doctrinal criteria. Many such associations of Baptist churches have developed in the United States since Baptists first came to the continent. Until the early 19th century these Baptist associations tended to center on a local or regional area where the constituent churches could conveniently meet. However, beginning with the spread of the Philadelphia Baptist Association beyond its original bounds and

3451-417: Is certain, we can never be a party to any arrangement which would imply approbation of slavery. In Baptist churches in both free and slaveholding states during this period, people of color were required to sit in a segregated "negro pew" regardless of whether they were members of the church, were licensed ministers, or even were invited into the pews of other white churchgoers. The Home Mission Society gave

3570-544: Is most pleasing to God when offered voluntarily, not when the government compels its observance. In addition, there are many Independent Baptist churches not aligned with any group. According to the Pew Research Center's 2014 Religious Landscape Study, 9.2% of Americans belong to Evangelical Baptist congregations. These include the Southern Baptist Convention (5.3%), the Independent Convention (2.5%),

3689-476: Is not offered to the person, name, or estate of others. —John Clarke Four Religious Principles During the trial, the court was represented by Governor Endicott, Deputy Governor Thomas Dudley , and magistrates Richard Bellingham , William Hibbins, and Increase Nowell . The Reverend John Cotton weighed in with denunciation for the prisoners, and the Reverend John Wilson struck Holmes while he

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3808-544: Is one of the commandments of this Lord Jesus Christ, and that a visible believer or disciple of Christ Jesus—that is, one that manifesteth repentance toward God, and faith in Jesus Christ—is the only person that is to be baptized, or dipped with that visible baptism. Third, every such believer in Christ Jesus ... may in point of liberty, yea, ought in point of duty, to improve that talent his Lord hath given unto him, and in

3927-634: The American Revolution , as the Baptists worked to disestablish the Anglican church. Beeman (1978) explores the conflict in one Virginia locality, showing that as population became more dense, the county court and the Anglican Church increased their authority. The Baptists protested vigorously; the resulting social disorder resulted chiefly from the ruling gentry's disregard of public need. The vitality of

4046-566: The Baptist General Convention of Texas , the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. , and American Baptist Churches USA financially and ideologically support the mission of the Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty . This organization tries to uphold the traditional Baptist principle of the separation of church and state. On the issue of school prayer , for instance, the Baptist Joint Committee argues that prayer

4165-531: The International Association of Baptist Colleges and Universities was founded. In 2023, it had 42 member universities in the United States. In a study published in 2014, using data from The National Survey of American Life: Coping with Stress in the 21st Century (NSAL), 49.08% of African American respondents identified as Baptist. In a 2001 ABC News/Beliefnet poll, 48% of Black Americans and 13% of White Americans identified as Baptist. According to

4284-657: The Massachusetts Bay Colony in November 1637 when the colony was in the midst of the major theological and political crisis known as the Antinomian Controversy . A major division had occurred within the Boston church between proponents of so-called "covenant of grace" theology, led by John Cotton , and proponents of so-called "covenant of works" , led by John Wilson and others. The controversy ultimately resulted in many people leaving Massachusetts Bay Colony, either voluntarily or by banishment. Some went north in November 1637 to found

4403-802: The Missionary Convention (less than 0.3%), the Conservative Baptist Association of America (less than 0.3%), the Free Will Convention (less than 0.3%), the General Assembly of Regular Baptists (less than 0.3%), and other evangelical conventions (1%). In 2006, the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) was the largest non-Catholic denomination in the United States. Before the American Civil War , most African American Baptists were, with some notable exceptions, members of

4522-613: The Rhode Island Royal Charter and presented it to the king, and it was approved with the king's seal on 8 July 1663. This charter granted unprecedented freedom and religious liberty to Rhode Islanders and remained in effect for 180 years, making it the longest-lasting constitutional charter in history. Clarke returned to Rhode Island following his success at procuring the charter; he became very active in civil affairs there, and continued to pastor his church in Newport until his death in 1676. He left an extensive will, setting up

4641-578: The Triennial Convention (now American Baptist Churches USA ). The first mission of the organization took place in Burma with the missionaries Adoniram Judson and Ann Hasseltine Judson in 1814. Other missions that followed took place in Siam in 1833, India in 1840, China in 1842, Japan in 1872 and Philippines in 1900. In 19th century Virginia, slaves applying for membership in Baptist churches were required to get written approval from their master to join

4760-508: The "Cotton Grove Resolutions". The "Cotton Grove Resolutions" essentially comprise the organizational document of the Landmark Baptist movement. James M. Pendleton was a Baptist pastor from Kentucky whose article An Old Landmark Re-Set , a treatise against pulpit affiliation with non-Baptist ministers, gave the movement its name. His Church Manual was also influential in perpetuating Landmark Baptist ecclesiology . Although Pendleton

4879-490: The "heretic" colony. The other colonies passed laws to outlaw Baptists and Quakers, leading to the hanging of four Quakers in Massachusetts. When Harvard's first president Henry Dunster abandoned Puritanism in favor of the Baptist faith in 1653, he provoked a controversy that highlighted two distinct approaches to dealing with dissent in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The colony's Puritan leaders, whose own religion

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4998-488: The Anglican Church "because some of the people ... cannot, in their private Opinions, conform to the publique exercise of religion ..." It also took some of the language from the Declaration of Breda : that no person within the said colony, at any time hereafter shall be any wise molested [harassed], punished, disquieted, or called in question, for any differences in opinion in matters of religion, and do not actually disturb

5117-514: The Assembly, [it was] Voted: That the box in which the King's gratious letters were enclosed be opened, and the letters with the broad seale thereto affixed be taken forth and read by Captayne George Baxter in the audience and view of all the people; which was accordingly done, and the sayd letters with his Majesty's Royall Stampe, and the broad seal, with much becoming gravity held up on hygh, and presented to

5236-575: The Baptist associations exist among Independent Baptists. Since the founding of Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island in 1764, Baptists have founded various institutions around the United States to assist congregants in Biblical literacy and to train clergy educated in the Bible and the original Biblical languages. Some of these schools such as Brown University and Bates College eventually became secularized, but others have maintained close bonds with their original founding groups and goals. In 2006,

5355-491: The Baptist community, leading to intense debates and numerous schisms. The movement began in the American South in 1851, shaped by James R. Graves of Tennessee, and Ben M. Bogard of Arkansas. The movement was a reaction to religious progressivism earlier in the century. At the time it arose, its proponents claimed Landmarkism was a return to what Baptists had previously believed, while scholars since then have claimed it

5474-563: The Boston jail after making a mission trip to the town of Lynn, Massachusetts . Following his poor treatment in prison, he went to England where he published a book on the persecutions of the Baptists in Massachusetts and on his theological beliefs. The fledgling Rhode Island colony needed an agent in England, so he remained there for more than a decade handling the colony's interests. The other New England colonies were hostile to Rhode Island, and both Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut Colony had made incursions into Rhode Island territory. After

5593-544: The Colonial Commissioners in London. On 3 April 1651, the Council of State of England gave Coddington the commission of a separate government for the island of Aquidneck and for the smaller neighboring island of Conanicut (later Jamestown, Rhode Island ), with him as governor for life. Criticism arose as soon as Coddington returned to Rhode Island with his commission. In September 1651, William Arnold summed up

5712-713: The Council of State on New England until April 1652 because of recent hostilities between the English and the Dutch. Coddington's commission for the island government was revoked in October 1652, with the help of Henry Vane . William Dyer returned to Rhode Island the following February, bringing the news of the return of the colony to the Williams Patent of 1643, but Clarke remained in England with his wife. Very soon after arriving in England, Clarke published Ill Newes from New England: or

5831-572: The First Baptist Church of Nashville, Tennessee . He was especially popular in the states of the lower Mississippi River Valley and Texas. In 1851, Graves called a meeting of like-minded Baptists at the Cotton Grove Baptist Church near Jackson, Tennessee , to address five questions: The majority of the gathered Baptists resolved these questions by non-recognition of non-Baptist congregations, and then published their findings as

5950-610: The Massachusetts churches were proceeding in the wrong direction. Less than half of the book concerns the persecution that Clarke and his companions experienced at the hands of the Massachusetts authorities. He wrote, "it is not the will of the Lord that any one should have dominion over another man's conscience. ... [Conscience] is such a sparkling beam from the Father of lights and spirits that it cannot be lorded over, commanded, or forced, either by men, devils, or angels." The book ultimately had

6069-587: The Newport church. William Witter was an elderly blind man with Baptist sentiments who was living in Lynn, Massachusetts in July 1651. He wanted to connect with his Baptist faith, but he was too infirm to travel to Newport, so Clarke, Obadiah Holmes , and John Crandall visited him at his home. The party arrived on Saturday 19 July and held a religious service the next day. Those present included family and visitors and "four or five strangers that came in unexpected". During

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6188-563: The North to be somewhat cooler, but the winter following [1637–38] proved so cold, that we were forced in the spring to make towards the South." Clarke joined a group of men at the Boston home of William Coddington on 7 March 1638, and they drafted the Portsmouth Compact . Some historians suggest that Clarke wrote the document, based on its religious sentiment. 23 men signed the document which

6307-808: The Providence church came first. In 1764, leading Baptist ministers the Reverend James Manning , the Reverend Isaac Backus , the Reverend Samuel Stillman , the Reverend Morgan Edwards and the Reverend John Gano established The College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , the seventh institution of higher education in the original Thirteen Colonies , with the specific goal of serving as

6426-402: The Puritan clergy, but the case was dropped by the court and the debate never took place. Clarke had drafted four points of discussion which detailed his beliefs and position. Friends raised the money to pay the fines for Clarke and Crandall, but without their consent and contrary to their wishes. As soon as Holmes discovered what was happening, he was able to forbid the payment of his fine as

6545-593: The Seekonk baptisms. In their eyes, they invalidated the earlier baptisms which the parishioners had undergone as children, and also invalidated the ministers who performed them. The magistrates wrote to their counterparts in Plymouth accusing them of doing nothing about the practices. The Seekonk church then excommunicated Holmes and he was compelled to move to Newport in 1650 or 1651 with a few other dissidents, following court action against him. He subsequently became an elder of

6664-488: The Seekonk church had quarreled with their minister Samuel Newman and had broken off from the main church, largely over the issue of infant baptism. Hearing of this division, Clarke and Lucar went to welcome the dissidents and baptize them by immersion. One of the Seekonk men was Obadiah Holmes who is considered a "pugnacious man [and] a hot-tempered fault-finder" by Clarke biographer Sydney James. The Massachusetts clergymen and magistrates were angered when they learned of

6783-445: The South. According to author Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham , it was this lack of political power and other liberties which led the Black church to become a source of community, education, economic power, leadership, and development in post Civil War America. In 1895, the National Baptist Convention, USA was formed. In 1906, the National Baptist Convention, USA had 2,261,607 members, representing 61.4% of all Black churchgoers in

6902-482: The ability of Baptist churches to attract a multiracial congregation. John Clarke (Baptist minister) John Clarke (October 1609 – 20 April 1676) was a physician, politician, and Baptist minister, who was co-founder of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , author of its influential charter, and a leading advocate of religious freedom in America. Clarke was born in Westhorpe, Suffolk , England. He received an extensive education, including

7021-435: The agreement was reached, Winthrop returned to New England while Clarke made his final push for Rhode Island's charter. Following all the furore over the land boundaries, none of the other provisions of the proposed charter aroused any debate. Many of the provisions of Rhode Island's charter were like those in Connecticut's, except that Connecticut wanted a government similar to that of Massachusetts, while Rhode Island wanted

7140-429: The boundary issues between the Rhode Island and Connecticut colonies. Clarke had to wait nearly a year for any action on the various petitions. An unforeseen emergency occurred in the spring of 1662 when Connecticut Colony Governor John Winthrop, Jr. was given an audience with the king ahead of Clarke, and he obtained a new charter for his colony. Winthrop was on good terms with many Rhode Islanders, but he also had

7259-427: The cause of Rhode Island in England. Shortly after Clarke arrived in England, he published Ill Newes from New-England, documenting the ordeal at the hands of the Massachusetts authorities . The book was an appeal to the English government outlining the case for religious tolerance, and it was instrumental in shaping public opinion and generating support for a charter for the Rhode Island colony. William Coddington

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7378-423: The churches of the American Baptist Association (founded by Bogard), Baptist Missionary Association of America , and the Interstate & Foreign Landmark Missionary Baptist Association . Through his Tennessee Baptist newspaper, James R. Graves popularized Landmarkism, building for it a virtual hegemony among Baptists west of the Appalachians . He and Amos C. Dayton , who was also influential, were members of

7497-547: The civil peace of our said colony; but that all and every person and persons may, from time to time, and at all times hereafter, freely and fully have and enjoy his and their own judgments and consciences, in matters of religious concernments, throughout the tract of land hereafter mentioned, they behaving themselves peaceable and quietly ... Once he had the cherished document in hand, it was imperative for Clarke to get it sent to Rhode Island. However, he had received very little remuneration for his diplomatic efforts and did not have

7616-464: The colony's religious mission. Thus, he represented a threat to the stability of theocratic society. Dunster exiled himself in 1654 and moved to nearby Plymouth Colony, where he died in 1658. The First African Baptist Church of Savannah, Georgia was founded in 1774. Before the American Revolution about 494 Baptist congregations existed in the United States. That number had risen to 1152 U.S. Baptist congregations by 1795. Isaac (1974) analyzes

7735-574: The conflict between Connecticut and Rhode Island. He summoned Winthrop and Clarke in July 1662, representing the king in hopes of settling the boundary dispute between the two colonies. Both colonies claimed the territory between the Pawcatuck River and the Narragansett Bay. The boundary line between the two colonies was ultimately set at the Pawcatuck River, after months of negotiations involving lawyers and arbitrators on both sides. Those who had settled on Atherton Company lands were allowed to choose whether to be governed by Connecticut or Rhode Island. Once

7854-417: The congregation ... may speak by way of prophecy for the edification, exhortation, and comfort of the whole. Fourth, that no such believer or servant of Christ Jesus hath liberty, much less authority from his Lord to smite his fellow-servant, nor yet with outward force, or arm of flesh to constrain, or restrain his conscience, no, nor yet his outward man for conscience' sake, or worship of his God, where injury

7973-522: The country. By 1916, that number had grown to 2,938,579, a membership larger than either the Northern or Southern Baptist conventions had at the time. According to a census published by the Baptist World Alliance in 2023, it self-reported a total of 21,145 churches and 8,415,100 members, Though each Baptist church is autonomous, Baptists have traditionally organized into associations of like-minded churches for mutual edification, consultation, and ministerial support. The constituency of these associations

8092-409: The crown. It also outlined provisions for colonial representation, specifying a colonial governor, deputy governor, and ten assistants (called magistrates because of their judicial role). In addition, the number of deputies allotted to each town was specified. Of paramount importance to Clarke was the charter's explicit guarantee of religious freedom. It excused Rhode Islanders from conformity with

8211-416: The deed granting Aquidneck Island to the settlers, which was signed "at Narragansett" (likely Providence) by sachems Canonicus and Miantonomi , with Williams and Randall Holden as witnesses. The names of many of the settlers were included on the deed; Coddington's name appeared first because he was responsible for the gratuity. Clarke joined William and Anne Hutchinson and many others in building

8330-416: The desired effect. The Massachusetts authorities became so alarmed over the contents of Ill Newes that Thomas Cobbet, the minister of the Lynn church, wrote a rebuttal entitled The Civil Magistrates Power in Matters of Religion Modestly Debated (1653). This book defended the use of force to maintain the "correct" church in the Massachusetts colony. This response was well written, but it did more to confirm

8449-567: The end of the service and explained to the congregation why they refused to remove their hats. The men were detained that evening, then brought before the local magistrates the following day. They were free to return to Witter's after being arraigned and before being taken to Boston. Clarke conducted a service and Holmes baptized three people. The prisoners were taken to Boston on 22 July and held until their trial on 31 July. They were brought before Governor John Endicott for questioning and were accused of being Anabaptists . Clarke replied that he

8568-402: The feelings of many of the Providence settlers when he wrote, "Whereas Mr. Coddington have gotten a charter of Road Iland and Conimacuke Iland to himself, he have thereby broken the force of their charter that went under the name of Providence, because he have gotten away the greater part of that colonie." Clarke voiced his opposition to Coddington's rule of the island, and he was commissioned as

8687-694: The first educational trust in America. He was an avid proponent of the notion of soul-liberty that was included in the Rhode Island charter—and later in the United States Constitution. John Clarke was born at Westhorpe in the county of Suffolk , England, and was baptized there on 8 October 1609. He was one of seven children of Thomas Clarke and Rose Kerrich (or Kerridge), six of whom left England and settled in New England. No definitive record has been found concerning his life in England other than

8806-481: The funds to immediately sail back to New England. He therefore entrusted the charter to Captain George Baxter, who carried it to Rhode Island. On 24 November 1663 Rhode Island's General Court of Commissioners convened at Newport for the last time under the parliamentary patent of 1643. The inhabitants and legislators had gathered to receive the result of Clarke's decade-long labors. The magnitude and solemnity of

8925-458: The island's agent to England on 15 October 1651. The following month, he and William Dyer were sent to England to get the Coddington commission revoked. Simultaneously, the mainland towns of Providence and Warwick sent Roger Williams on a similar errand, and the three men sailed for England in November 1651, just a few months after Clarke had been released from prison. The men did not meet with

9044-401: The king between 1661 and 1662. He offered the king the complete loyalty of the Rhode Island colony, and then requested the king's sympathy and support to guarantee freedom of conscience in the pursuit of religious worship. Clarke wrote a particularly eloquent proposal in a petition received by the crown on 5 February 1661, with certain words emboldened within the document. His earnest request

9163-593: The largest denominations among African Americans are the National Baptist Convention and the Progressive National Baptist Convention . Baptists appeared in the American Colonies in the early 17th century among settlers from England. Theologically all Baptists insisted that baptism was the key ritual and should not be administered to children too young to understand the meaning. However some were Arminian holding that God's saving Grace

9282-420: The new settlement of Pocasset on Aquidneck Island. Within a year, however, there was dissension among the leaders, and Clarke joined Coddington and others in moving to the south end of the island, establishing the town of Newport . On 2 January 1639, Clarke and three others were appointed to survey the new lands around Newport, and they were appointed to proportion it among the inhabitants on 5 June. In 1640,

9401-494: The occasion was captured in the colonial records: At a very great meeting and assembly of the freemen of the colony of Providence Plantation, at Newport, in Rhode Island, in New England, November the 24th, 1663. The abovesayed Assembly being legally called and orderly mett for the sollome reception of his Majestyes gratious letter pattent unto them sent, and having in order thereto chosen the President, Benedict Arnold , Moderator of

9520-445: The ordeal endured by these men was the conversion and baptism of some of the witnesses. One such witness was Henry Dunster , the first president of Harvard College . Dunster's conversion in faith resulted in his removal as president in 1654, but helped inspire the creation of the First Baptist Church of Boston . Some scholars have argued that Clarke's mission trip was planned to provoke the Massachusetts officials in order to support

9639-467: The parish records of his baptism and those of his siblings. Clarke was apparently highly educated, judging from the fact that he arrived in New England at the age of 28 qualified as both a physician and a Baptist minister. His many years of study become evident through a book that he wrote and published in 1652, and through his masterful authorship of the Rhode Island Royal Charter of 1663; further, his will mentions his Hebrew and Greek books, as well as

9758-503: The perfect view of the people, and then returned into the box and locked up by the Governor, in order to the safe keeping of it. The following day it was voted that words of humble thanks be delivered to the King and also to the Earl of Clarendon, and that a £100 gratuity be given to Clarke. The charter stood the test of time, and it wasn't until 1843, 180 years after its creation, that the charter

9877-464: The persecutions of Clarke's party than to defend the Massachusetts position. Ultimately, the book helped Rhode Island secure significant religious liberties, prompting one Baptist historian to describe Clarke as "the Baptist drum major for freedom in seventeenth century America." Clarke was Rhode Island's official agent in England, although he received little compensation for his work. However, he remained active in his religious commitment and joined

9996-457: The preaching of Roger Williams , John Clarke , and others. During the 18th century, the Great Awakening resulted in the conversion of many slaves to Baptist churches, although they were often segregated and relegated lower status within Baptist churches. Although some Baptists opposed slavery during this period, many Baptists in the south remained slave holders and still others considered it

10115-430: The principal author of the first complete code of laws that was enacted by the fledgling colony in 1647. Rhode Island historian and Lieutenant Governor Samuel G. Arnold extolled the virtues of this code, calling it a model of legislation which has not been surpassed. In 1638, Roger Williams established a church in Providence which is now known as the First Baptist Church in America . The next Baptist congregation

10234-582: The question of "the continuance of Christian fellowship between northern and southern churches." In 1841, at the annual meeting in Baltimore, "leading ministers and members of the Denomination had signed a document repudiating the course of anti-slavery Baptists, and pronouncing the disfellowship of slaveholders an innovation unsanctioned by the usages of the denomination." There was set up an American Baptist Free Mission Society in 1842, whose founding President

10353-482: The religious opposition made the conflict between 'evangelical' and 'gentry' styles a bitter one. Kroll-Smith (1984) suggests the strength of the evangelical movement's organization determined its ability to mobilize power outside the conventional authority structure. In 1793, the Virginia Baptist General Committee, composed of representatives from Baptist institutions from across Virginia, passed

10472-460: The restoration of the monarchy in England in 1660, it was imperative that Rhode Island receive a royal charter to protect its territorial integrity. It was Clarke's role to obtain such a document, and he saw this as an opportunity to include religious freedoms never seen before in any constitutional charter. He wrote ten petitions and letters to King Charles II and negotiated for months with Connecticut over territorial boundaries. Finally, he drafted

10591-519: The rise of the Baptist Church in Virginia, with emphasis on evangelicalism and social life. There was a sharp contrast between the austerity of the plain-living Baptists and the opulence of the Anglican planters, who controlled local government. Baptist church discipline, mistaken by the gentry for radicalism, served to ameliorate disorder. The struggle for religious toleration erupted and played out during

10710-514: The rise of the modern missions movement, Baptists began to move towards developing national associations. The first national association was the Triennial Convention , founded in the early 19th century, which met every three years. The Triennial Convention was a loose organization with the purpose of raising funds for various independent benevolent, educational and mission societies. Over the years, other nationwide Baptist associations have originated as divisions from these two major groups. There are

10829-460: The same churches as the whites (though often relegated to a segregated status within the church). After the war they left the white churches to start separate churches and associations. Today there are several historically African-American groups in the United States, including the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. , the National Baptist Convention of America , and others. A good number of African-American Baptist churches are dually aligned with

10948-489: The same self-government of the freemen that had been granted earlier in the 1643 patent. However, the Rhode Island charter went much further in its guarantees of religious freedom. Once the boundary issue between Rhode Island and Connecticut was resolved, the long-awaited charter, drafted by Clarke, was given the king's seal on 8 July 1663. The document was remarkable in that it not only offered corporate powers beyond what most English bureaucrats thought prudent, but offered

11067-468: The scars on Mr. Holmes' back (which the old man was wont to call the marks of the Lord Jesus), have expressed a wonder that he should live." Following the men's arrest and ill treatment, Sir Richard Saltonstall wrote from England to Reverends Cotton and Wilson of the Boston church: "These rigid wayes have lay'd you very lowe in the hearts of the saynts." Shortly after the incident, Roger Williams wrote

11186-416: The service, two constables appeared with a warrant signed by local magistrate Robert Bridge calling for the arrest of Clarke and his two associates. No baptisms had been performed, but the wording of the warrant suggested that this was the reason for the men's arrest. The men were forced to attend a Puritan religious service against their will, and they refused to remove their hats in church. Clarke stood at

11305-563: The throne of England, and within two years the Act of Uniformity was passed requiring unified religious observances centered on the Anglican Church. The new king harbored prejudices against the Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists, increasing Clarke's difficulty in crafting a charter that included religious freedoms. Clarke's commission as the agent for Rhode Island was renewed on 18 October 1660, and he filed at least ten petitions and letters to

11424-507: The time of his arrival until 1644, when a church at Newport was founded. The church remains active as a Reformed Baptist Church and carries the name of United Baptist Church, John Clarke Memorial in honor of its founder. In 1649, Clarke went to Seekonk (then in Plymouth Colony but later in Rehoboth, Massachusetts ) to help organize a Baptist church. Roger Williams confirmed this in

11543-482: The town of Exeter, New Hampshire , while a larger group were uncertain where to go. They contacted Roger Williams , who suggested that they purchase land from the Narragansett people along the Narragansett Bay , near his settlement of Providence Plantations . John Clarke apparently went with both groups, based on what he wrote in his book: "By reason of the suffocating heat of the summer before [1637], I went to

11662-404: The towns of Portsmouth and Newport united and Coddington was elected its governor. Roger Williams wanted royal recognition for these settlements and protection against encroachments from their neighbors of Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut. In 1643, he went to England to obtain a patent bringing all four towns (Newport, Portsmouth, Providence, and Warwick ) under one government. Coddington

11781-491: The trial was that Holmes was fined £30, Clarke £20, and Crandall £5. Holmes had been given the heaviest fine because of his excommunication in Seekonk and for administering the baptisms in Lynn. Clarke protested their heavy fines, and Governor Endicott replied that Clarke "was worthy to be hanged." In court, Endicott told Clarke that his beliefs would not stand up to those of the Puritan ministers. Clarke responded to this by writing

11900-688: The two decades after the Revolution during the Second Great Awakening, Baptist preachers abandoned their pleas that slaves be manumitted. When the Alabama State Convention called on the Foreign Mission Board to explicitly allow slaveholders as missionaries, the board responded: If...any one should offer himself as a missionary, having slaves, and should insist on retaining them as his property, we could not appoint him. One thing

12019-642: Was Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor . Struggling to gain a foothold in the South, after the American Revolution, the next generation of Southern Baptist preachers accommodated themselves to the leadership of Southern society. Rather than challenging the gentry on slavery and urging manumission (as did the Quakers and Methodists), they began to interpret the Bible as supporting the practice of slavery and encouraged good paternalistic practices by slaveholders. They preached to slaves to accept their places and obey their masters. In

12138-481: Was "TO HOLD FORTH A LIVELY EXPERIMENT THAT A MOST FLOURISHING CIVILL STATE MAY STAND ... AND BEST BE MAINTAYNED ... WITH A FULL LIBERTIE IN RELIGIOUS CONCERNMENTS". These words became emblematic of Rhode Island's struggle for religious freedom and were soon included in the charter itself—and much later were chiseled on the frieze of the Rhode Island State House. One of the later petitions dealt heavily with

12257-404: Was "a major departure." In 1859, the Southern Baptist Convention approved several resolutions disapproving of Landmarkism, which led to adherents gradually withdrawing from the Southern Baptist Convention "to form their own churches and associations and create an independent Landmark Baptist tradition." The main baptist groups adhering to Landmark principles and doctrines in the present day are

12376-572: Was born of dissent from mainstream Church of England, generally worked for reconciliation with members who questioned matters of Puritan theology but responded much more harshly to outright rejection of Puritanism. Dunster's conflict with the colony's magistrates began when he failed to have his infant son baptized, believing, as a newly converted Baptist, that only adults should be baptized. Efforts to restore Dunster to Puritan orthodoxy failed, and his apostasy proved untenable to colony leaders who had entrusted him, in his job as Harvard's president, to uphold

12495-454: Was continued in the first charter of 1644 and affirmed by the newly created colonial government in 1647. This principle was explicitly affirmed in the Charter of 1663 which John Clarke wrote and secured. Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was regarded by the neighboring colonies with undisguised horror, and Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Connecticut spent the next 100 years trying to dismember

12614-454: Was detailed. The charter guaranteed the rights of Rhode Island residents to travel freely within the other colonies, which rights had been curtailed due to religious reasons in the past. The new charter also forbade the other New England colonies from making war against the Indians within Rhode Island, without its permission, and also directed that disputes with other colonies would be appealed to

12733-473: Was established by John Clarke on Rhode Island and likely had its beginnings when he arrived on the island in 1638. Massachusetts Governor John Winthrop wrote that there were "professed Anabaptists " on the island from 1640 to 1641. Boston lawyer Thomas Lechford wrote that there was a church on the island in 1640 of which Clarke was the elder or pastor, but he understood that it had been dissolved. Nevertheless, Clarke conducted public worship in Newport from

12852-461: Was finally replaced by the Constitution of Rhode Island , and only for the one reason that the apportionment of representatives for the several towns "could no longer be rendered as just in operation and could only be remedied by alteration of the organic law." When the document was ultimately retired, it was the longest surviving constitutional charter in the world. It was so far-reaching that even

12971-701: Was first published in The Tennessee Baptist . This Christian theology article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Baptists in the United States English Baptists migrated to the American colonies during the seventeenth century. Baptist theological reflection informed how the colonists understood their presence in the New World, especially in Rhode Island through

13090-442: Was in the protection of the court. The men were charged with: (1) holding an unauthorized religious meeting; (2) disrupting an authorized meeting (wearing their hats); (3) administering sacraments illegally; (4) maintaining that the Massachusetts churches were not true churches; and (5) maintaining that infant baptism was false baptism. The men were sentenced without any accuser or witness speaking out against them. The outcome of

13209-423: Was intended to form a "Bodie Politick" based on Christian principles, and Coddington was chosen as the leader of the group. Roger Williams suggested two places where the exiles could settle on the Narraganset Bay : Sowams (which became Barrington and Warren, Rhode Island ) and Aquidneck Island (which was called Rhode Island at the time). Williams was uncertain about English claims to these lands, so Clarke led

13328-497: Was neither an Anabaptist, nor a Pedobaptist (one favoring infant baptism), nor a Catabaptist (one opposing infant baptism). The governor said that the three men "deserved death, and he would not have such trash brought into his jurisdiction." First, that ... Jesus Christ is ... the Lord: none to or with him by way of commanding and ordering, with respect to the worship of God, the household of faith. Second, baptism, or dipping in water,

13447-448: Was opposed to the patent because the two island towns had grown and prospered much more than the mainland towns of Providence and Warwick. He managed to keep the island towns separate until 1647 when the four towns finally adopted the patent and became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations . Clarke had some legal training, and historian Albert Henry Newman argued that he was

13566-545: Was organized as First Baptist Church in Newport in 1644. No one disputed the earlier origins of the Providence church until 1847 when the pastor of the Newport church claimed that his church was first. According to a Baptist historian who has researched the matter extensively, "There is much debate over the centuries as to whether the Providence or Newport church deserved the place of 'first' Baptist congregation in America. Exact records for both congregations are lacking." Today, almost without exception Baptist historians agree that

13685-477: Was the creation of "hush harbors " where slaves would secretly blend Christianity with their African religions and practices, creating their own communities. Some of these spaces were also used to plot against slaveowners, such as the 1831 rebellion in Virginia led by Nat Turner , a Baptist preacher in his community. The International Ministries was founded in 1814 as the Baptist Board for Foreign Missions by

13804-535: Was the first woman to receive this honor. In 1888, the Woman's Missionary Union was instituted. Women were recognized and encouraged to form missionary circles and children's bands in churches and Sunday Schools. Formation of the Black Baptist convention During Reconstruction , policies and practices such as literacy tests , poll taxes , and racial violence lead to the continued disenfranchisement of freed slaves in

13923-548: Was the only native Southerner in the Landmark Triumvirate, he was in favor of emancipation and opposed secession . As a result, his influence among Southern Baptists declined precipitously in the days leading up to the American Civil War and he took a pastorate in Pennsylvania during the war. Amos C. Dayton's major contribution to Landmarkism was the novel Theodosia Ernest (1857), which expressed religious issues and

14042-534: Was under Parliament and Oliver Cromwell as the Lord Protector . Clarke's primary purpose there was to secure a strengthened charter for the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations ensuring the religious liberties on which the colony had been founded, and Cromwell confirmed the validity of Rhode Island's 1643 patent. Clarke also assisted the colony in 1656 by sending home four barrels of powder and eight barrels of shot and bullets, and in 1657 he handled

14161-408: Was unhappy with the colonial patent that Roger Williams had obtained in 1643, and he was resistant to consolidating the four settlements into the unified Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , which ultimately came about in 1647 as a result of the patent. He wanted colonial independence for the two island towns of Newport and Portsmouth, and decided to go to England to present his case to

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