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45-542: It remains one of only two surviving pre-19th century literary sources from Ladakh. Only seven original manuscripts of the chronicles are known to have existed, of which two survive today. Until the early 19th century, European historians believed that there were no written histories from Ladakh. After reports to the contrary, Alexander Cunningham found the first known manuscript of the chronicles ( Ms. Cunningham ) during his stay in Ladakh in 1847. The origin, intent, and time of

90-547: A Major General rank is usually held by someone that is a Regional Military Command General Officer Commanding (Regional Commander or တိုင်းမှူး) or a Director such as Director of Defence Service Intelligence ( Khin Nyunt for example) In the New Zealand Army , major-general is the rank held by the chief of army (formerly the chief of general staff). The more senior rank of lieutenant-general is reserved for when an army officer holds

135-769: A crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown. In the Canadian Army, the rank insignia is a wide braid on the cuff, as well as two gold maple leaves beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown. It is worn on the shoulder straps of the service dress tunic, and on slip-ons on other uniforms. On the visor of the service cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as 'general' and name, as are all general officers; thereafter by subordinates as 'sir' or 'ma'am' as applicable in English ( French : mon général ). Major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars . In Myanmar,

180-447: Is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general . In English-speaking countries , when appointed to a field command, a major general is typically in command of a division consisting of around 6,000 to 25,000 troops (several regiments or brigades ). It is a rank that is subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the rank of brigadier or brigadier general . In

225-783: Is used by the Royal Brunei Land Force and the Royal Brunei Air Force . The rank is held by the Commander of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces . In the Canadian Armed Forces , the rank of major-general (MGen) ( French : major-général ) is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navy 's rank of rear-admiral . A major-general is a general officer ,

270-685: The Numismatic Chronicle . Two of Cunningham's brothers, Francis and Joseph , became well known for their work in British India ; while another, Peter , became famous for his Handbook of London (1849). Cunningham married Alicia Maria Whish, daughter of Martin Whish, B.C.S., on 30 March 1840. The couple had two sons, Lieutenant-Colonel Allan J. C. Cunningham (1842–1928) of the Bengal and Royal Engineers, and Sir Alexander F. D. Cunningham (1852–1935) of

315-674: The Battle of Punniar in December 1843. He became engineer at Gwalior and was responsible for constructing an arched stone bridge over the Morar River in 1844–45. In 1845–46 he was called to serve in Punjab and helped construct two bridges of boats across the Beas river prior to the Battle of Sobraon . In 1846, he was made commissioner along with P. A. Vans Agnew to demarcate boundaries. Letters were written to

360-459: The Government of India . He held this position from 1861 to 1865, but it was then terminated through lack of funds. Most antiquarians of the 19th century who took interest in identifying the major cities mentioned in ancient Indian texts, did so by putting together clues found in classical Graeco-Roman chronicles and the travelogues of travellers to India such as Xuanzang and Faxian . Cunningham

405-631: The Governor-General of India. During this period he visited Kashmir , which was then not well explored. He finds mention by initials in Up the Country by Emily Eden . In 1841 Cunningham was made executive engineer to the king of Oudh . In 1842 he was called to serve the army in thwarting an uprising in Bundelkhand by the ruler of Jaipur . He was then posted at Nowgong in central India before he saw action at

450-714: The "Treaty of Temisgam") in the fortress of Tingmosgang at the conclusion of the Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal War in 1684. The original text of the Treaty of Tingmosgang no longer survives, but its contents are summarized in the Ladakh Chronicles . The summary contained in the Ladakh Chronicles includes six main clauses of the treaty: The trade regulations provided for Ladakh's exclusive right to trade in pashmina wool produced in Tibet, in exchange for brick-tea from Ladakh. Ladakh

495-587: The Archaeological Survey of India with much-needed organization and expertise after he left the Army in 1861. In his capacity as the first Director General, he carried out excavations in significant ancient towns, issued thirty volumes of archaeological papers, and assessed over 725 sites. He is regarded as the founder of archaeology in India because: Cunningham assembled a large numismatic collection, but much of this

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540-583: The Army ( Major-General do Exército ) became extinct in 1950, with their roles being unified in the then created Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces . In the Russian Army , the rank 'major general' is known as Russian : генера́л-майо́р , romanized :  generál-mayór . It is equivalent to a British brigadier or an American brigadier general . The Turkish Army and Air Force refer to

585-540: The Chinese and Tibetan officials by Lord Hardinge , but no officials joined. A second commission was set up in 1847 which was led by Cunningham to establish the Ladakh - Tibet boundary, which also included Henry Strachey and Thomas Thomson . Henry and his brother Richard Strachey had trespassed into Lake Mansarovar and Rakas Tal in 1846 and his brother Richard revisited in 1848 with botanist J. E. Winterbottom. The commission

630-484: The Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the navy rank of rear admiral . In air forces with a separate rank structure (Commonwealth), major general is equivalent to air vice-marshal . In some countries including much of Eastern Europe , major general is the lowest of the general officer ranks without brigadier general rank. In the sultanate of Brunei , the rank of Major general ( Malay : Mejar jeneral )

675-731: The Indian Civil Service. Cunningham died on 28 November 1893, at his home in South Kensington and was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery , London. His wife had predeceased him. He was survived by his two sons. Cunningham was awarded the CSI on 20 May 1870 and CIE in 1878. In 1887, he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire . Books written by Cunningham include: Additional works: Major General Major general

720-484: The Indus took three days and not two and therefore, suggested a different location for the city. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct. Now as Hwen Thsang, on his return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants, his three days' journey from Takhshasila [ sic ] to the Indus at Utakhanda , or Ohind, must necessarily have been of

765-523: The area from 663, and it was controlled by the Tibetan Empire until 842, after which the area was described by the chronicles as splintering into several principalities plagued by warfare and raiding. The chronicles then describe the establishment of Maryul by descendants of the central Tibetan monarchy in the 10th century. The chronicles describe the period of conflicts with the Mughal Empire during

810-496: The authorship of the Ladakh Chronicles remains unknown to modern historians. It remains one of only two surviving pre-19th century literary sources from Ladakh. There are seven extant manuscripts of the Ladakh Chronicles : In 1926, Tibetologist August Herman Francke published a non-critical translation of the chronicle, in what was the first detailed history of Ladakh. His edition was based on five manuscripts ( Ms.S , Ms.A , Ms.B , Ms.C , Ms.L ). Francke's edition would become

855-571: The bases of pillars to discover large stashes of Bactrian and Roman coins—excavations became a regular activity among British antiquarians. In 1834 he submitted to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , an appendix to James Prinsep 's article, on the relics in the Mankiala stupa . He had conducted excavations at Sarnath in 1837 along with Frederick Charles Maisey and made careful drawings of

900-553: The battles of Chillianwala and Gujrat in 1848–49. In 1851, he explored the Buddhist monuments of Central India along with Lieutenant Maisey and wrote an account of these. In 1856 he was appointed chief engineer of Burma , which had just been annexed by Britain, for two years; and from 1858 served for three years in the same post in the North-Western Provinces . In both regions, he established public works departments. He

945-512: The chronicles' treatment of the period before the 17th century. The Ladakh Chronicles were split into three main sections: the first two sections are about the history of central Tibet; the third section is specifically about Ladakh. The principal chronicle is the Royal Genealogy of Ladakh . The chronicles refers to several dynasties of kings, mentioning that some were descended from the mythological Tibetan hero Gesar . Tibetans controlled

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990-549: The equivalent of a naval flag officer . The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier general and commodore , and junior to lieutenant-general and vice admiral . Prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal , instead. The rank insignia for a major-general in the Royal Canadian Air Force is a wide braid under a single narrow braid on the cuff, as well as two silver maple leaves beneath

1035-602: The gold and silver coins and a fine group of Buddhist sculptures and jewellery were bought by the British Museum in 1894. He was also the father of mathematician Allan Cunningham . Cunningham was born in London on 23 January 1814 to the Scottish poet Allan Cunningham (1784–1842) and his wife Jean née Walker (1791–1864). Along with his older brother, Joseph , he received his early education at Christ's Hospital , London. Through

1080-488: The growth of Buddhism in the first half of the second millennium, and the introduction of Islam in the 16th century. The first publication of the Ladakh Chronicles ' summary of the 1684 Treaty of Tingmosgang appeared as an appendix to a book by Henry Ramsay . It is held that Prime Minister Desi Sangye Gyatso of Tibet and the King Delek Namgyal of Ladakh agreed on the Treaty of Tingmosgang (sometimes called

1125-498: The history and architecture of ancient India developed during his service. Soon after arriving in India on 9 June 1833, he met James Prinsep . He was in daily communication with Prinsep during 1837 and 1838 and became his intimate friend, confidant and pupil. Prinsep passed on to him his lifelong interest in Indian archaeology and antiquity. From 1836 to 1840, he was ADC to Lord Auckland ,

1170-688: The influence of Sir Walter Scott , both Joseph and Alexander obtained cadetships at the East India Company 's Addiscombe Seminary (1829–31), followed by technical training at the Royal Engineers Estate at Chatham . Alexander joined the Bengal Engineers at the age of 19 as a Second Lieutenant and he spent the next 28 years in the service of British Government of India . He demonstrated his abilities as an official by surveying flood-prone areas in and around Delhi. Cunningham's interest in

1215-529: The late 14th to 16th centuries in Ladakh and Baltistan . The chronicles then describe the development of the Namgyal dynasty and its expansion to Purig in the west and the Tibetan lands of Guge in the east. The latter parts of the Ladakh Chronicles in manuscripts Ms. C and Ms. Sonam contain details about the surprise Dogra invasion of Ladakh . The chronicles also cover the first-millennium presence of Buddhism,

1260-595: The other body it would show that Brahmanism, instead of being an unchanged and unchangeable religion which had subsisted for ages, was of comparatively modern origin, and had been constantly receiving additions and alterations; facts which prove that the establishment of the Christian religion in India must ultimately succeed. Following his retirement from the Royal Engineers in 1861, Lord Canning , then Viceroy of India , appointed Cunningham as an archaeological surveyor to

1305-716: The position of chief of defence force, who commands all of New Zealand's armed forces. This position is subject to rotation between the heads of the New Zealand Air Force , New Zealand Army, and New Zealand Navy . Major general in the Pakistan Army is equivalent to rear admiral in the Pakistan Navy and air vice marshal in the Pakistan Air Force . It is the lowest of the general officer ranks, ranking between brigadier and lieutenant general. The rank of major-general

1350-747: The rank as tümgeneral . The Turkish Navy equivalent is tümamiral . The name is derived from tümen , the Turkish word for a military division ( tümen itself is an older Turkish word meaning 10,000). Thus, linguistically, it is similar to the French equivalent for a major general, French : général de division . In the United States , the rank of major general exists in the United States Air Force , United States Army , United States Marine Corps , and United States Space Force . Generalmajor

1395-510: The rest under his supervision by others such as J. D. Beglar. Other major works included the first volume of Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum (1877) which included copies of the edicts of Ashoka , The Stupa of Bharhut (1879) and the Book of Indian Eras (1883) which allowed the dating of Indian antiquities. He retired from the Archaeological Survey on 30 September 1885 and returned to London to continue his research and writing. Cunningham provided

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1440-464: The same length as those of modern days, and, consequently, the site of the city must be looked for somewhere in the neighbourhood of Kâla-ka-sarâi . This site is found near Shah-dheri , just one mile to the north-east of Kâla-ka-sarâi , in the extensive ruins of a fortified city, around which I was able to trace no less than 55 stupas, of which two are as large as the great Manikyala tope, twenty-eight monasteries, and nine temples. After his department

1485-433: The sculptures. In 1842 he excavated at Sankassa and at Sanchi in 1851. In 1854, he published The Bhilsa Topes , a piece of work which attempted to establish the history of Buddhism based on architectural evidence. By 1851, he also began to communicate with William Henry Sykes and the East India Company on the value of an archaeological survey. He provided a rationale for providing the necessary funding, arguing that

1530-478: The standard edition for all future studies on the pre-Dogra Ladakh. In the later part of the 20th century, research on the Ladakh Chronicles was complemented by further studies by Joseph Gergan, Luciano Petech , and Zahiruddin Ahmad. Petech, in a comparative study with other texts, notes an abundance of omissions and mistakes; he warns against trusting the chronicle blindly. Other scholars have also warned about gaps in

1575-535: The venture ... would be an undertaking of vast importance to the Indian Government politically, and to the British public religiously. To the first body it would show that India had generally been divided into numerous petty chiefships, which had invariably been the case upon every successful invasion; while, whenever she had been under one ruler, she had always repelled foreign conquest with determined resolution. To

1620-571: Was a British Army engineer with the Bengal Sappers who later took an interest in the history and archaeology of India. In 1861, he was appointed to the newly created position of archaeological surveyor to the government of India ; and he founded and organised what later became the Archaeological Survey of India . He wrote numerous books and monographs and made extensive collections of artefacts. Some of his collections were lost, but most of

1665-424: Was able to identify some of the places mentioned by Xuanzang, and counted among his major achievements the identification of Aornos , Ahichchhatra , Bairat , Kosambi , Nalanda , Padmavati , Sangala , Sankisa , Shravasti , Srughna , Taxila , and Vaishali . Unlike his contemporaries, Cunningham would also routinely confirm his identifications through field surveys. The identification of Taxila, in particular,

1710-769: Was abolished in 1865, Cunningham returned to England and wrote the first part of his Ancient Geography of India (1871), covering the Buddhist period; but failed to complete the second part, covering the Muslim period. During this period in London he worked as director of the Delhi and London Bank . In 1870, Lord Mayo re-established the Archaeological Survey of India , with Cunningham as its director-general from 1 January 1871. Cunningham returned to India and made field explorations each winter, conducting excavations and surveys from Taxila to Gaur. He produced twenty-four reports, thirteen as author and

1755-452: Was also bound to send periodic missions to Lhasa carrying presents for the Dalai Lama. The fee in the sixth clause was later paid by Desi Sangye Gyatso to Mi-'pham dBaii-po in the form of three estates in Tibet sometime between the autumn of 1684 and 1685. Alexander Cunningham Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham KCIE CSI (23 January 1814 – 28 November 1893)

1800-617: Was lost when the steamship he was travelling in, the Indus , was wrecked off the coast of Ceylon in November 1884. The British Museum , however, obtained most of the gold and silver coins. He had suggested to the Museum that they should use the arch from the Sanchi Stupa to mark the entrance of a new section on Indian history. He also published numerous papers in the Journal of the Asiatic Society and

1845-520: Was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded by Pliny in his Naturalis Historia which pointed to a location somewhere on the Haro River , a two-day march from the Indus . Cunningham noticed that this position did not tally with the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, the descriptions provided by Xuanzang. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from

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1890-539: Was moved up one level, with the role of brigade commander being assumed by the below rank of brigadier-general. In most of the 19th and first half of the 20th century, major-general was not used as a rank in the Portuguese military, but as an appointment title conferred to the general officer that acted as the military head of a service branch . The roles of Major-General of the Navy ( Major-General da Armada ) and Major-General of

1935-530: Was reintroduced in the Portuguese Army , Portuguese Air Force , and Portuguese National Republican Guard in 1999, replacing the former rank of brigadier in the role of brigade commander. As a rank, it had previously been used in the Army only for a brief period (from 1862 to 1864). It is equivalent to the rank of contra-almirante (rear-admiral) in the Portuguese Navy . In 2015, the rank of major-general

1980-664: Was set up to delimit the northern boundaries of the Empire after the First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Amritsar , which ceded Kashmir as war indemnity expenses to the British. His early work Essay on the Aryan Order of Architecture (1848) arose from his visits to the temples in Kashmir and his travels in Ladakh during his tenure with the commission. He was also present at

2025-421: Was therefore absent from India during the Rebellion of 1857 . He was appointed Colonel of the Royal Engineers in 1860. He retired on 30 June 1861, having attained the rank of Major General . Cunningham had taken a keen interest in antiquities from early on in his career. Following the activities of Jean-Baptiste Ventura (general of Ranjit Singh )—who, inspired by the French explorers in Egypt, had excavated

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