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136-703: Kuriakose ( Syriac : ܩܘܪܝܩܘܣ ) is a common male first name and surname among Saint Thomas Christians , mainly from central part of the state of Kerala in India and surrounding areas. Derivatives of the name Kuriakose include Kurian and Kurien. This name is a variant of names found among Middle Eastern countries among the minority Syrian, Iranian and Iraqi Christians such as Assyrians and Arabs , Kyriakos in Greece and Cyprus , Cyriacus in Italy and Cyr in France. The name Kuriakose

272-602: A communion meal. Initially, Christians kept the Jewish custom of fasting on Mondays and Thursdays. Later, the Christian fast days shifted to Wednesdays and Fridays (see Friday fast ) in remembrance of Judas' betrayal and the crucifixion. James was killed on the order of the high priest in AD 62. He was succeeded as leader of the Jerusalem church by Simeon , another relative of Jesus. During

408-674: A city in Galilee . He was baptized in the Jordan River by John the Baptist . Jesus began his own ministry when he was around 30 years old around the time of the Baptist's arrest and execution . Jesus' message centered on the coming of the Kingdom of God (in Jewish eschatology a future when God actively rules over the world in justice, mercy, and peace). Jesus urged his followers to repent in preparation for

544-411: A closer grammatical relationship by the addition of a pronominal suffix. Thus, the phrase can be written as ܫܩ̈ܠܝܗ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ , šeqlêh d-malkuṯā . In this case, both nouns continue to be in the emphatic state, but the first has the suffix that makes it literally read "her taxes" ("kingdom" is feminine), and thus is "her taxes, [those] of the kingdom". Adjectives always agree in gender and number with

680-482: A common synonym for Aramaic language in general, while other (conventional and narrower) designating only the Edessan Aramaic, also referred to more specifically as the " Classical Syriac ". Noting the problem, scholars have tried to resolve the issue by being more consistent in their use of the term " Classical Syriac " as a strict and clear scientific designation for the old literary and liturgical language, but

816-426: A few irregular stems, like the Šap̄ʿel and ʾEštap̄ʿal , which generally have an extensive meaning. The basic G-stem or "Peal" conjugation of "to write" in the perfect and imperfect is as follows: Phonologically, like the other Northwest Semitic languages, Syriac has 22 consonants. The consonantal phonemes are: Early Christianity The Apostolic sees claim to have been founded by one or more of

952-620: A fundamental cultural and literary influence on the development of Arabic , which largely replaced it during the later medieval period. Syriac remains the sacred language of Syriac Christianity to this day. It is used as liturgical language of several denominations, like those who follow the East Syriac Rite , including the Assyrian Church of the East , the Ancient Church of the East ,

1088-604: A future king from the House of David who would establish and reign over an idealized kingdom. In the Second Temple period, there was no consensus on who the messiah would be or what he would do. Most commonly, he was imagined to be an end times son of David going about the business of "executing judgment, defeating the enemies of God, reigning over a restored Israel, [and] establishing unending peace". Yet, there were other kinds of messianic figures proposed as well—the perfect priest or

1224-663: A key locus of trade that made it the third-most important city of the Roman Empire. In the Book of Acts , it is said that it was at Antioch where followers of Jesus were first called Christians; it was also the location of the Incident at Antioch , described in the Epistle to the Galatians . It was the site of an early church traditionally said to be founded by Peter; later traditions also attributed

1360-501: A ruin near modern Corinth in southern Greece, was an early center of Christianity. According to the Acts of Apostles , Paul stayed eighteen months in Corinth to preach. He initially stayed with Aquila and Priscilla , and was later joined by Silas and Timothy . After he left Corinth, Apollo was sent from Ephesus by Priscilla to replace him. Paul returned to Corinth at least once. He wrote

1496-516: A specific variant of the Aramaic language in relation to its regional origin in northeastern parts of Ancient Syria , around Edessa , which lay outside of the provincial borders of Roman Syria . Since Aramaic was used by various Middle Eastern peoples, having several variants ( dialects ), this specific dialect that originated in northeastern Syria became known under its regional (Syrian/Syriac) designation ( Suryaya ). In English scholarly literature ,

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1632-405: A variant designation for the ancient Eblaite language from the third millennium BC, that is unrelated to the much later Edessan Aramaic, and its early phases, that were commonly labeled as Old/Proto- or even Paleo/Palaeo-Syrian/Syriac in scholarly literature. Newest addition to the terminological mosaic occurred c. 2014, when it was proposed, also by a scholar, that one of regional dialects of

1768-637: Is also taught in some public schools in Iraq , Syria , Palestine , Israel , Sweden , Augsburg (Germany) and Kerala (India). In 2014, an Assyrian nursery school could finally be opened in Yeşilköy , Istanbul after waging a lawsuit against the Ministry of National Education which had denied it permission, but was required to respect non-Muslim minority rights as specified in the Treaty of Lausanne . In August 2016,

1904-673: Is derived from the Syriac Aramaic name ܩܘܪܝܩܘܣ ( quryāqōs ) which itself is from Greek. The name is believed to have originated from Saint Quriaqos who is known in both Syriac and Latin liturgies The meaning of Kuriakose most closely matches to 'of the Lord'. Quryaqos / Kiryakos / Koriakos Syriac language The Syriac language ( / ˈ s ɪr i æ k / SIH -ree-ak ; Classical Syriac : ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ , romanized:  Leššānā Suryāyā ), also known natively in its spoken form in early Syriac literature as Edessan ( Urhāyā ),

2040-461: Is known for an apology addressed to Emperor Hadrian during his visit to Athens, contributing to early Christian literature. Aristeides and Athenagoras also wrote apologies during this time. By the second century, Athens likely had a significant Christian community, as Hygeinos , bishop of Rome, write a letter to the community in Athens in the year 139. Gortyn on Crete was allied with Rome and

2176-421: Is the head-noun which is marked by the construct state. Thus, ܫܩ̈ܠܝ ܡܠܟܘܬܐ , šeqlay malkuṯā , means "the taxes of the kingdom". Quickly, the construct relationship was abandoned and replaced by the use of the relative particle ܕ , d-, da- . Thus, the same noun phrase becomes ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ , šeqlē d-malkuṯā , where both nouns are in the emphatic state. Very closely related nouns can be drawn into

2312-498: Is the start of a split between Jewish Christianity and Gentile (or Pauline) Christianity . While Jewish Christianity would remain important through the next few centuries, it would ultimately be pushed to the margins as Gentile Christianity became dominant. Jewish Christianity was also opposed by early Rabbinic Judaism , the successor to the Pharisees. When Peter left Jerusalem after Herod Agrippa I tried to kill him, James appears as

2448-631: Is traditionally identified as the founder of the Cypriot Orthodox Church. Damascus is the capital of Syria and claims to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world. According to the New Testament, the Apostle Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus . In the three accounts ( Acts 9:1–20 , 22:1–22 , 26:1–24 ), he is described as being led by those he was traveling with, blinded by

2584-616: Is translated as " church " in most English translations of the New Testament . Many early Christians were merchants and others who had practical reasons for traveling to Asia Minor , Arabia , the Balkans , the Middle East , North Africa , and other regions. Over 40 such communities were established by the year 100, many in Anatolia , also known as Asia Minor, such as the Seven churches of Asia . By

2720-486: Is used in the Old Testament to designate Jewish kings and in some cases priests and prophets whose status was symbolized by being anointed with holy anointing oil . The term is most associated with King David , to whom God promised an eternal kingdom ( 2 Samuel 7:11–17 ). After the destruction of David's kingdom and lineage, this promise was reaffirmed by the prophets Isaiah , Jeremiah , and Ezekiel , who foresaw

2856-497: Is written in the Syriac alphabet , a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet . The language is preserved in a large body of Syriac literature , that comprises roughly 90% of the extant Aramaic literature. Along with Greek and Latin , Syriac became one of the three most important languages of Early Christianity . Already from the first and second centuries AD, the inhabitants of the region of Osroene began to embrace Christianity , and by

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2992-804: The cross of Christ , after removing a Temple to Venus (attributed to Hadrian) that had been built over the site. Jerusalem had received special recognition in Canon VII of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. The traditional founding date for the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre (which guards the Christian Holy places in the Holy Land) is 313, which corresponds with the date of the Edict of Milan promulgated by

3128-541: The 12 tribes of Israel (10 of which were "lost" by this time) to symbolize the full restoration of Israel that would be accomplished through him. The gospel accounts provide insight into what early Christians believed about Jesus. As the Christ or "Anointed One" (Greek: Christos ), Jesus is identified as the fulfillment of messianic prophecies in the Hebrew scriptures. Through the accounts of his miraculous virgin birth ,

3264-696: The Byzantine Empire , which lasted till 1453. The First seven Ecumenical Councils were held either in Western Anatolia or across the Bosphorus in Constantinople. Caesarea , on the seacoast just northwest of Jerusalem, at first Caesarea Maritima , then after 133 Caesarea Palaestina , was built by Herod the Great , c. 25–13 BC, and was the capital of Iudaea Province (6–132) and later Palaestina Prima . It

3400-1023: The Chaldean Catholic Church , the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church , and the Assyrian Pentecostal Church , and also those who follow the West Syriac Rite , including: Syriac Orthodox Church , the Syriac Catholic Church , the Maronite Catholic Church , the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church , the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church . Classical Syriac was originally

3536-632: The Church of the East in central and northeastern Mesopotamia. Religious divisions were also reflected in linguistic differences between the Western Syriac Rite and the Eastern Syriac Rite . During the 5th and the 6th century, Syriac reached its height as the lingua franca of Mesopotamia and surrounding regions. It existed in literary (liturgical) form, as well as in vernacular forms, as the native language of Syriac-speaking populations. Following

3672-834: The Council of Serdica . Cyrene and the surrounding region of Cyrenaica or the North African " Pentapolis ", south of the Mediterranean from Greece, the northeastern part of modern Libya , was a Greek colony in North Africa later converted to a Roman province. In addition to Greeks and Romans, there was also a significant Jewish population , at least up to the Kitos War (115–117). According to Mark 15:21 , Simon of Cyrene carried Jesus' cross. Cyrenians are also mentioned in Acts 2:10 , 6:9 , 11:20 , 13:1 . According to Byzantine legend,

3808-647: The Crisis of the Third Century , Nicomedia became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 286. The Synod of Ancyra was held in 314. In 325 the emperor Constantine convoked the first Christian ecumenical council in Nicaea and in 330 moved the capital of the reunified empire to Byzantium (also an early Christian center and just across the Bosphorus from Anatolia , later called Constantinople ), referred to as

3944-641: The Danube River . The spread of Christianity among the Thracians and the emergence of centers of Christianity like Serdica (present day Sofia ), Philippopolis (present day Plovdiv ) and Durostorum (present day Silistra ) was likely to have begun with these early Apostolic missions . The first Christian monastery in Europe was founded in Thrace in 344 by Saint Athanasius near modern-day Chirpan , Bulgaria , following

4080-744: The First Epistle of Clement written to the Corinthian church, dated around 96. The bishops in Corinth include Apollo, Sosthenes , and Dionysius . Athens , the capital and largest city in Greece, was visited by Paul. He probably traveled by sea, arriving at Piraeus , the harbor of Athens, coming from Berœa of Macedonia around the year 53. According to Acts 17 , when he arrived at Athens, he immediately sent for Silas and Timotheos who had stayed behind in Berœa. While waiting for them, Paul explored Athens and visited

4216-540: The First Epistle to the Corinthians from Ephesus approximately in 54-55 which focused on sexual immorality, divorces, lawsuits, and resurrections. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Macedonia was written around 56 as a fourth letter discussing his proposed plans for the future, instructions, unity, and his defense of apostolic authority. The earliest evidence of the primacy of the Roman Church can be seen in

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4352-700: The First Jewish-Roman War (AD   66–73), Jerusalem and the Temple were destroyed after a brutal siege in AD   70. Prophecies of the Second Temple's destruction are found in the synoptic gospels , specifically in the Olivet Discourse . According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis , the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish Revolt . The church had returned to Jerusalem by AD 135, but

4488-551: The Great Fire of AD 64. It is possible that Peter and Paul were in Rome and were martyred at this time. Nero was deposed in AD 68, and the persecution of Christians ceased. Under the emperors Vespasian ( r.  69–79 ) and Titus ( r.  79–81 ), Christians were largely ignored by the Roman government. The Emperor Domitian ( r.  81–96 ) authorized a new persecution against

4624-649: The Hebrew Bible called the Septuagint . The Septuagint was the translation of the Old Testament used by early Christians. Diaspora Jews continued to make pilgrimage to the Temple , but they started forming local religious institutions called synagogues as early as the 3rd century BC. The Maccabean Revolt caused Judaism to divide into competing sects with different theological and political goals, each adopting different stances towards Hellenization. The main sects were

4760-408: The Hellenistic period when the Ancient Near East underwent Hellenization (the spread of Greek culture ). Judaism was thereafter both culturally and politically part of the Hellenistic world; however, Hellenistic Judaism was stronger among diaspora Jews than among those living in the land of Israel. Diaspora Jews spoke Koine Greek , and the Jews of Alexandria produced a Greek translation of

4896-430: The Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church , the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church and some Parishes in the Syro-Malabar Knanaya Archeparchy of Kottayam . Eastern Syriac is the liturgical language of the East Syriac Rite , practised in modern times by the ethnic Assyrian followers of the Assyrian Church of the East , the Assyrian Pentecostal Church , the Ancient Church of the East , the Chaldean Catholic Church , as well as

5032-416: The Mesopotamian language ( Nahrāyā ) and Aramaic ( Aramāyā ), is an Eastern Middle Aramaic dialect. Classical Syriac is the academic term used to refer to the dialect's literary usage and standardization, distinguishing it from other Aramaic dialects also known as 'Syriac' or 'Syrian'. In its West-Syriac tradition, Classical Syriac is often known as leššōnō kṯoḇonōyō ( lit.   '

5168-554: The Middle East , Central Asia and the Malabar Coast in India , and remains so among the Syriac Christians to this day. It has been found as far afield as Hadrian's Wall in Great Britain , with inscriptions written by Aramaic-speaking soldiers of the Roman Empire . History of Syriac language is divided into several successive periods, defined primarily by linguistic, and also by cultural criteria. Some terminological and chronological distinctions exist between different classifications, that were proposed among scholars. During

5304-542: The Near East (2003), those issues have acquired additional complexity, related to legal recognition of the language and its name. In the Constitution of Iraq (Article 4), adopted in 2005, and also in subsequent legislation, term " Syriac " ( Arabic : السريانية / al-suriania ) is used as official designation for the language of Neo-Aramaic -speaking communities, thus opening additional questions related to linguistic and cultural identity of those communities. Legal and other practical (educational and informational) aspects of

5440-405: The Neo-Aramaic languages. Such differences in classification, both terminological and substantial, within systems and between systems (ISO and MARC), led to the creation of several additional problems, that remain unresolved. Within linguistics, mosaic of terminological ambiguities related to Syrian/Syriac labels was additionally enriched by introduction of the term " Palaeo-Syrian language " as

5576-408: The Old Aramaic language from the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC should be called " Central Syrian Aramaic ", thus introducing another ambiguous term, that can be used, in its generic meaning, to any local variant of Aramaic that occurred in central regions of Syria during any period in history. After more than five centuries of Syriac studies , which were founded by western scholars at

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5712-412: The Pauline epistles , letters written to various Christian congregations by Paul the Apostle in the 50s AD. The four canonical gospels of Matthew ( c.  AD 80  – c.  AD 90 ), Mark ( c.  AD 70 ), Luke ( c.  AD 80  – c.  AD 90 ), and John (written at the end of the 1st century) are ancient biographies of Jesus' life. Jesus grew up in Nazareth ,

5848-471: The Persian Empire permitted Jews to return to their homeland of Judea , there was no longer a native Jewish monarchy. Instead, political power devolved to the high priest , who served as an intermediary between the Jewish people and the empire. This arrangement continued after the region was conquered by Alexander the Great (356–323 BC). After Alexander's death, the region was ruled by Ptolemaic Egypt ( c.  301  – c.  200 BC ) and then

5984-406: The Persians in 614 or the Saracens around 637. The first major church historian, Eusebius of Caesarea , was a bishop, c. 314–339. F. J. A. Hort and Adolf von Harnack have argued that the Nicene Creed originated in Caesarea. The Caesarean text-type is recognized by many textual scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types. Paphos was the capital of the island of Cyprus during

6120-456: The Roman Empire . The central tenets of Second Temple Judaism revolved around monotheism and the belief that Jews were a chosen people . As part of their covenant with God , Jews were obligated to obey the Torah . In return, they were given the land of Israel and the city of Jerusalem , where God dwelled in the Temple. Apocalyptic and wisdom literature had a major influence on Second Temple Judaism. Alexander's conquests initiated

6256-408: The Sadducees , Pharisees , and Essenes . The Sadducees were mainly Jerusalem aristocrats intent on maintaining control over Jewish politics and religion. Sadducee religion was focused on the Temple and its rituals. The Pharisees emphasized personal piety and interpreted the Torah in ways that provided religious guidance for daily life. Unlike Sadducees, the Pharisees believed in the resurrection of

6392-418: The Seleucid Empire ( c.  200  – c.  142 BC ). The anti-Jewish policies of Antiochus IV Epiphanes ( r.  175 – 164 BC ) sparked the Maccabean Revolt in 167   BC, which culminated in the establishment of an independent Judea under the Hasmoneans , who ruled as kings and high priests. This independence would last until 63   BC when Judea became a client state of

6528-422: The Synoptic Gospels , specifically in Jesus's Olivet Discourse . Romans had a negative perception of early Christians. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that Christians were despised for their "abominations" and "hatred of humankind". The belief that Christians hated humankind could refer to their refusal to participate in social activities connected to pagan worship—these included most social activities such as

6664-406: The Syro-Malabar Catholic Church in India. Syriac literature is by far the most prodigious of the various Aramaic languages. Its corpus covers poetry, prose, theology, liturgy, hymnody, history, philosophy, science, medicine and natural history. Much of this wealth remains unavailable in critical editions or modern translation. From the 7th century onwards, Syriac gradually gave way to Arabic as

6800-551: The Thessalonians and to Philippi , which is often considered the first contact of Christianity with Europe. The Apostolic Father Polycarp wrote a letter to the Philippians , c. 125. Nicopolis was a city in the Roman province of Epirus Vetus , today a ruin on the northern part of the western Greek coast. In the Epistle to Titus , Paul said he intended to go there. It is possible that there were some Christians in its population. According to Eusebius , Origen (c. 185–254) stayed there for some time Ancient Corinth , today

6936-440: The West Syriac Rite under the Byzantine rule. As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity , Classical Syriac spread throughout Asia as far as the South Indian Malabar Coast , and Eastern China , and became the medium of communication and cultural dissemination for the later Arabs , and (to a lesser extent) the other peoples of Parthian and Sasanian empires. Primarily a Christian medium of expression, Syriac had

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7072-424: The apostles of Jesus , who are said to have dispersed from Jerusalem sometime after the crucifixion of Jesus , c. 26–33, perhaps following the Great Commission . Early Christians gathered in small private homes, known as house churches , but a city's whole Christian community would also be called a " church "—the Greek noun ἐκκλησία ( ekklesia ) literally means "assembly", "gathering", or "congregation" but

7208-417: The early Christian communities in Asia Minor , was the inclusion of Gentiles into God's New Covenant , sending the message that faith in Christ is sufficient for salvation . ( See also : Supersessionism , New Covenant , Antinomianism , Hellenistic Judaism , and Paul the Apostle and Judaism ). The Council of Jerusalem did not end the dispute, however. There are indications that James still believed

7344-406: The infinitive and the active and passive participles . Syriac has only two true morphological tenses: perfect and imperfect. Whereas these tenses were originally aspectual in Aramaic, they have become a truly temporal past and future tenses respectively. The present tense is usually marked with the participle followed by the subject pronoun . Such pronouns are usually omitted in

7480-405: The linguistic homeland of the language in the region of Osroene, was never part of contemporary (Roman) Syria . In the 3rd century, churches in Edessa began to use local Aramaic dialect as the language of worship. Early literary efforts were focused on creation of an authoritative Aramaic translation of the Bible, the Peshitta ( ܦܫܝܛܬܐ Pšīṭtā ). At the same time, Ephrem the Syrian

7616-429: The metropolitan see with the bishop of Jerusalem as one of its "suffragans" (subordinates). Origen (d. 254) compiled his Hexapla there and it held a famous library and theological school , St. Pamphilus (d. 309) was a noted scholar-priest. St. Gregory the Wonder-Worker (d. 270), St. Basil the Great (d. 379), and St. Jerome (d. 420) visited and studied at the library which was later destroyed, probably by

7752-537: The theater , the army, sports, and classical literature . They also refused to worship the Roman emperor , like Jews. Nonetheless, Romans were more lenient to Jews compared to Gentile Christians. Some anti-Christian Romans further distinguished between Jews and Christians by claiming that Christianity was "apostasy" from Judaism. Celsus , for example, considered Jewish Christians to be hypocrites for claiming that they embraced their Jewish heritage. Emperor Nero persecuted Christians in Rome, whom he blamed for starting

7888-543: The 5th century. In the same time, a growing body of later sources showed that both in Greek, and in native literature, those labels were most commonly used as designations for Aramaic language in general, including its various dialects (both eastern and western), thus challenging the conventional scholarly reduction of the term "Syriac language" to a specific designation for Edessan Aramaic. Such use, that excludes non-Edessan dialects, and particularly those of Western Aramaic provenience, persist as an accepted convention, but in

8024-460: The Apostle Paul was from Tarsus (in south-central Anatolia) and his missionary journeys were primarily in Anatolia. The First Epistle of Peter ( 1:1–2 ) is addressed to Anatolian regions. On the southeast shore of the Black Sea , Pontus was a Greek colony mentioned three times in the New Testament. Inhabitants of Pontus were some of the first converts to Christianity. Pliny, governor in 110 , in his letters, addressed Christians in Pontus. Of

8160-457: The Arab conquest in the 7th century, vernacular forms of Syriac were gradually replaced during the next centuries by the advancing Arabic language . Having an Aramaic (Syriac) substratum , the regional Arabic dialect ( Mesopotamian Arabic ) developed under the strong influence of local Aramaic (Syriac) dialects, sharing significant similarities in language structure, as well as having evident and stark influences from previous (ancient) languages of

8296-488: The Christians. It was at this time that the Book of Revelation was written by John of Patmos . In the 2nd century, Roman Emperor Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as a Pagan city and renamed it Aelia Capitolina , erecting statues of Jupiter and himself on the site of the former Jewish Temple, the Temple Mount . In the years AD 132–136, Bar Kokhba led an unsuccessful revolt as a Jewish Messiah claimant , but Christians refused to acknowledge him as such. When Bar Kokhba

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8432-511: The Heaven which he had now entered, to love and save from destruction all who acknowledged him as Lord. For his followers, Jesus' death inaugurated a New Covenant between God and his people. The apostle Paul, in his epistles, taught that Jesus makes salvation possible. Through faith , believers experience union with Jesus and both share in his suffering and the hope of his resurrection. While they do not provide new information, non-Christian sources do confirm certain information found in

8568-409: The Johannine works traditionally and plausibly occurred in Ephesus , c. 90–110, although some scholars argue for an origin in Syria . This includes the Book of Revelation , although modern Bible scholars believe that it to be authored by a different John, John of Patmos (a Greek island about 30 miles off the Anatolian coast), that mentions Seven churches of Asia . According to the New Testament,

8704-667: The Ourhi Centre was founded by the Assyrian community in the city of Qamishli, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac an additional language to be taught in public schools in the Jazira Region of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria , which then started with the 2016/17 academic year. In April 2023, a team of AI researchers completed the first AI translation model and website for classical Syriac. Many Syriac words, like those in other Semitic languages , belong to triconsonantal roots , collations of three Syriac consonants. New words are built from these three consonants with variable vowel and consonant sets. For example,

8840-442: The Phoenicians all speak Syriac, but with many differences in pronunciation ". Theodoret's regional (provincial) differentiation of Aramaic dialects included an explicit distinction between the "Syrians" (as Aramaic speakers of Syria proper, western of Euphrates ), and the "Osroenians" as Aramaic speakers of Osroene (eastern region, centered in Edessa ), thus showing that dialect of the "Syrians" (Aramaic speakers of proper Syria)

8976-424: The Roman Emperor Constantine the Great , which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. Jerusalem was later named as one of the Pentarchy , but this was never accepted by the Church of Rome . ( See also : East–West Schism#Prospects for reconciliation ). Antioch (modern Antakya , Turkey) was the capital of the Roman province of Syria and a center of Greek culture in the Eastern Mediterranean , as well as

9112-439: The Roman years and seat of a Roman commander. In 45 AD, the apostles Paul and Barnabas , who according to Acts 4:36 was "a native of Cyprus", came to Cyprus and reached Paphos preaching the message of Jesus, see also Acts 13:4–13 . According to Acts, the apostles were persecuted by the Romans but eventually succeeded in convincing the Roman commander Sergius Paulus to renounce his old religion in favour of Christianity. Barnabas

9248-488: The Syriac-speaking world. As a result, Syriac developed distinctive western and eastern varieties. Although remaining a single language with a high level of comprehension between the varieties, the two employ distinctive variations in pronunciation and writing system, and, to a lesser degree, in vocabulary. The Syriac language later split into a western variety, used mainly by the Syriac Orthodox Church in upper Mesopotamia and Syria proper, and an eastern variety used mainly by

9384-504: The Torah (such as food laws , male circumcision , and Sabbath observance) gave rise to various answers. Some Christians demanded full observance of the Torah and required Gentile converts to become Jews. Others, such as Paul, believed that the Torah was no longer binding because of Jesus' death and resurrection. In the middle were Christians who believed Gentiles should follow some of the Torah but not all of it. In c.  48–50 AD , Barnabas and Paul went to Jerusalem to meet with

9520-399: The Torah was binding on Jewish Christians. Galatians 2:11-14 describe "people from James" causing Peter and other Jewish Christians in Antioch to break table fellowship with Gentiles. ( See also : Incident at Antioch ). Joel Marcus, professor of Christian origins, suggests that Peter's position may have lain somewhere between James and Paul, but that he probably leaned more toward James. This

9656-444: The beginning of the First Jewish–Roman War in AD 66. Jerusalem's bishops became suffragans (subordinates) of the Metropolitan bishop in nearby Caesarea , Interest in Jerusalem resumed with the pilgrimage of the Roman Empress Helena to the Holy Land ( c.  326–328 AD ). According to the church historian Socrates of Constantinople , Helena (with the assistance of Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem ) claimed to have found

9792-447: The case of the third person. This use of the participle to mark the present tense is the most common of a number of compound tenses that can be used to express varying senses of tense and aspect. Syriac also employs derived verb stems such as are present in other Semitic languages. These are regular modifications of the verb's root to express other changes in meaning. The first stem is the ground state, or Pəʿal (this name models

9928-457: The celestial Son of Man who brings about the resurrection of the dead and the final judgment . Christianity centers on the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth , who lived c.  4 BC  – c.  AD 33 . Jesus left no writings of his own, and most information about him comes from early Christian writings that now form part of the New Testament . The earliest of these are

10064-792: The cities of Asia Minor . By the early 50s, he had moved on to Europe where he stopped in Philippi and then traveled to Thessalonica in Roman Macedonia . He then moved into mainland Greece, spending time in Athens and Corinth . While in Corinth, Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans , indicating that there were already Christian groups in Rome . Some of these groups had been started by Paul's missionary associates Priscilla and Aquila and Epainetus . Social and professional networks played an important part in spreading

10200-504: The city of Edessa ( Urhay ). Among similar endonymic names with regional connotations, term Nahraya was also used. It was derived from choronym (regional name) Bet-Nahrain , an Aramaic name for Mesopotamia in general. Original endonymic (native) designations, for Aramaic in general ( Aramaya ), and Edessan Aramaic in particular ( Urhaya ), were later (starting from the 5th century) accompanied by another term, exonymic (foreign) in origin: Suryaya (Syrian/Syriac), adopted under

10336-519: The city of Edessa . During the Early Christian period, it became the main literary language of various Aramaic-speaking Christian communities in the historical region of Ancient Syria and throughout the Near East . As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity , it gained a prominent role among Eastern Christian communities that used both Eastern Syriac and Western Syriac rites. Following

10472-465: The connection between Acts 15 and the seven Noahide laws. In roughly the same time period, rabbinic Jewish legal authorities made their circumcision requirement for Jewish boys even stricter. The primary issue which was addressed related to the requirement of circumcision , as the author of Acts relates, but other important matters arose as well, as the Apostolic Decree indicates. The dispute

10608-440: The consistency of such use was never achieved within the field. Inconsistent use of "Syrian/Syriac" labels in scholarly literature has led some researchers to raise additional questions, related not only to terminological issues but also to some more fundamental (methodological) problems, that were undermining the integrity of the field. Attempts to resolve those issues were unsuccessful, and in many scholarly works, related to

10744-455: The creation of a specific field of Syriac studies , within Aramaic studies . Preference of early scholars towards the use of the Syrian/Syriac label was also relied upon its notable use as an alternative designation for Aramaic language in the " Cave of Treasures ", long held to be the 4th century work of an authoritative writer and revered Christian saint Ephrem of Edessa (d. 373), who

10880-647: The creation of newspapers in written Syriac ( ܟܬܒܢܝܐ Kṯāḇānāyā ) similar to the use of Modern Standard Arabic has been employed since the early decades of the 20th century. Modern forms of literary Syriac have also been used not only in religious literature but also in secular genres, often with Assyrian nationalistic themes. Syriac is spoken as the liturgical language of the Syriac Orthodox Church , as well as by some of its adherents . Syriac has been recognised as an official minority language in Iraq. It

11016-591: The dead and an afterlife. The Essenes rejected Temple worship, which they believed was defiled by wicked priests. They were part of a broader apocalyptic movement in Judaism, which believed the end times were at hand when God would restore Israel. Roman rule exacerbated these religious tensions and led the radical Zealots to separate from the Pharisees. The territories of Roman Judea and Galilee were frequently troubled by insurrection and messianic claimants . Messiah ( Hebrew : meshiach ) means "anointed" and

11152-405: The development of Classical Syriac, the emphatic state became the ordinary form of the noun, and the absolute and construct states were relegated to certain stock phrases (for example, ܒܪ ܐܢܫܐ/ܒܪܢܫܐ , bar nāšā , "man, person", literally "son of man"). In Old and early Classical Syriac, most genitive noun relationships are built using the construct state, but contrary to the genitive case, it

11288-523: The disruptions severely weakened the Jerusalem church's influence over the wider Christian church . Jerusalem was the first center of the Christian Church according to the Book of Acts . The apostles lived and taught there for some time after Pentecost . James the Just, brother of Jesus was leader of the early Christian community in Jerusalem, and his other kinsmen likely held leadership positions in

11424-635: The earliest New Testament types. It had a significant Jewish population , of which Philo of Alexandria is probably its most known author. It produced superior scripture and notable church fathers, such as Clement, Origen, and Athanasius; also noteworthy were the nearby Desert Fathers . By the end of the era, Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch were accorded authority over nearby metropolitans . The Council of Nicaea in canon VI affirmed Alexandria's traditional authority over Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis (North Africa) (the Diocese of Egypt ) and probably granted Alexandria

11560-599: The end of the first century , Christianity had already spread to Rome , Ethiopia , Alexandria , Armenia , Greece , and Syria , serving as foundations for the expansive spread of Christianity , eventually throughout the world. Christianity originated as a minor sect within Second Temple Judaism , a form of Judaism named after the Second Temple built c.  516 BC after the Babylonian captivity . While

11696-439: The end of the 15th century, main terminological issues related to the name and classification of the language known as Edessan Aramaic, and also referred to by several other names combined of Syrian/Syriac labels, remain opened and unsolved. Some of those issues have special sociolinguistic and ethnolinguistic significance for the remaining Neo-Aramaic speaking communities. Since the occurrence of major political changes in

11832-631: The extant letters of Ignatius of Antioch considered authentic , five of seven are to Anatolian cities, the sixth is to Polycarp . Smyrna was home to Polycarp, the bishop who reportedly knew the Apostle John personally, and probably also to his student Irenaeus . Papias of Hierapolis is also believed to have been a student of John the Apostle. In the 2nd century, Anatolia was home to Quartodecimanism , Montanism , Marcion of Sinope , and Melito of Sardis who recorded an early Christian Biblical canon . After

11968-620: The first three centuries of the Common Era , a local Aramaic dialect spoken in the Kingdom of Osroene , centered in Edessa , eastern of Euphrates , started to gain prominence and regional significance. There are about eighty extant early inscriptions, written in Old-Edessan Aramaic, dated to the first three centuries AD, with the earliest inscription being dated to the 6th year AD, and the earliest parchment to 243 AD. All of these early examples of

12104-457: The following words belong to the root ܫܩܠ ( ŠQL ), to which a basic meaning of taking can be assigned: Most Syriac nouns are built from triliteral roots. Nouns carry grammatical gender (masculine or feminine), they can be either singular or plural in number (a very few can be dual) and can exist in one of three grammatical states. These states should not be confused with grammatical cases in other languages. However, very quickly in

12240-449: The gospels present Jesus as the Son of God . The gospels describe the miracles of Jesus which served to authenticate his message and reveal a foretaste of the coming kingdom. The gospel accounts conclude with a description of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus , ultimately leading to his Ascension into Heaven . Jesus' victory over death became the central belief of Christianity. In

12376-567: The gospels. The Jewish historian Josephus referenced Jesus in his Antiquities of the Jews written c.  AD 95 . The paragraph, known as the Testimonium Flavianum , provides a brief summary of Jesus' life, but the original text has been altered by Christian interpolation . The first Roman author to reference Jesus is Tacitus ( c.  AD 56 – c.  120 ), who wrote that Christians "took their name from Christus who

12512-616: The influence of a long-standing Greek custom of referring to speakers of Aramaic as Syrians . Among ancient Greeks, term "Syrian language" was used as a common designation for Aramaic language in general, and such usage was also reflected in Aramaic, by subsequent (acquired) use of the term "Suryaya" as the most preferred synonym for "Aramaya" (Aramaic). Practice of interchangeable naming (Aramaya, Urhaya, Nahraya, and Suryaya) persisted for centuries, in common use and also in works of various prominent writers. One of those who used various terms

12648-558: The kingdom's coming. His ethical teachings included loving one's enemies ( Matthew 5:44 ; Luke 6:28–35 ), giving alms and fasting in secret ( Matthew 6:4 –18), not serving both God and Mammon ( Matthew 6:24 ; Luke 16 :13), and not judging others ( Matthew 7:1 –2; Luke 6:37–38). These teachings are highlighted in the Sermon on the Mount and the Lord's Prayer . Jesus chose 12 Disciples who represented

12784-420: The language and its Syrian/Syriac regional origin. Early native speakers and writers used several endonymic terms as designations for their language. In addition to common endonym (native name) for the Aramaic language in general ( Aramaya ), another endonymic term was also used, designating more specifically the local Edessan dialect, known as Urhaya , a term derived directly from the native Aramaic name for

12920-427: The language are non-Christian. As a language of public life and administration in the region of Osroene, Edessan Aramaic was gradually given a relatively coherent form, style and grammar that is lacking in other Aramaic dialects of the same period. Since Old-Edessan Aramaic later developed into Classical Syriac, it was retroactively labeled by western scholars as "Old Syrian/Syriac" or "Proto-Syrian/Syriac", although

13056-506: The leader of the Jerusalem church. Clement of Alexandria ( c.  150–215 AD ) called him Bishop of Jerusalem . Peter, John and James were collectively recognized as the three pillars of the church ( Galatians 2:9 ). At this early date, Christianity was still a Jewish sect. Christians in Jerusalem kept the Jewish Sabbath and continued to worship at the Temple. In commemoration of Jesus' resurrection, they gathered on Sunday for

13192-517: The light, to Damascus where his sight was restored by a disciple called Ananias (who is thought to have been the first bishop of Damascus) then he was baptized . Thessalonica , the major northern Greek city where it is believed Christianity was founded by Paul , thus an Apostolic See , and the surrounding regions of Macedonia , Thrace , and Epirus , which also extend into the neighboring Balkan states of Albania and Bulgaria , were early centers of Christianity. Of note are Paul's Epistles to

13328-481: The linguistic self-identification also arose throughout Syriac-speaking diaspora , particularly in European countries (Germany, Sweden, Netherlands). Syriac was the local dialect of Aramaic in Edessa , and evolved under the influence of the Church of the East and the Syriac Orthodox Church into its current form. Before Arabic became the dominant language, Syriac was a major language among Christian communities in

13464-658: The liturgical language of the Syriac Melkites within the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch in Antioch and parts of ancient Syria . The Syriac Melkites changed their church's West Syriac Rite to that of Constantinople in the 9th-11th centuries, necessitating new translations of all their Syriac liturgical books. In the English language , the term "Syriac" is used as a linguonym (language name) designating

13600-614: The most important cities in the empire. Early Christians referred to themselves as brethren, disciples or saints , but it was in Antioch, according to Acts 11 :26, that they were first called Christians (Greek: Christianoi ). According to the New Testament, Paul the apostle established Christian communities throughout the Mediterranean world. He is known to have also spent some time in Arabia. After preaching in Syria, he turned his attention to

13736-521: The name " Syriac ", while the existing general code syr, that was until then named " Syriac ", was renamed to " Syriac, Modern ". Within ISO 639 system, large body of unspecific references related to various linguistic uses of the term " Syriac " remained related to the original ISO 639-2 code syr ( Syriac ), but its scope is defined within the ISO 639-3 standard as a macrolanguage that currently includes only some of

13872-481: The nouns they modify. Adjectives are in the absolute state if they are predicative , but agree with the state of their noun if attributive . Thus, ܒܝܫܝ̈ܢ ܫܩ̈ܠܐ , bišin šeqlē , means "the taxes are evil", whereas ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܒܝ̈ܫܐ , šeqlē ḇišē , means "evil taxes". Most Syriac verbs are built on triliteral roots as well. Finite verbs carry person , gender (except in the first person) and number, as well as tense and conjugation . The non-finite verb forms are

14008-411: The old literary and liturgical language, reduction of the term " Classical Syriac " to " Syriac " (only) remained a manner of convenience, even in titles of works, including encyclopedic entries, thus creating a large body of unspecific references, that became a base for the emergence of several new classes of terminological problems at the advent of the informational era . Those problems culminated during

14144-446: The poor, sick, and widows. Women actively contributed to the Christian faith as disciples, missionaries, and more due to the large acceptance early Christianity offered. Historian Keith Hopkins estimated that by AD 100 there were around 7,000 Christians (about 0.01 percent of the Roman Empire's population of 60 million). Separate Christian groups maintained contact with each other through letters, visits from itinerant preachers , and

14280-563: The principal authority of the early Christian church. Clement of Alexandria ( c.  150–215 AD ) called him Bishop of Jerusalem . A 2nd-century church historian, Hegesippus , wrote that the Sanhedrin martyred him in 62 AD. In 66 AD, the Jews revolted against Rome . After a brutal siege, Jerusalem fell in 70 AD . The city, including the Jewish Temple, was destroyed and the population

14416-490: The process of international standardization of the terms " Syriac " and " Classical Syriac " within the ISO 639 and MARC systems. The term " Classical Syriac " was accepted in 2007 and codified (ISO code: syc ) as a designation for the old literary and liturgical language, thus confirming the proper use of the term. In the same time, within the MARC standard, code syc was accepted as designation for Classical Syriac , but under

14552-491: The region. Syriac-influenced Arabic dialects developed among Iraqi Muslims , as well as Iraqi Christians , most of whom descend from native Syriac speakers. Western Syriac is the official language of the West Syriac Rite , practiced by the Syriac Orthodox Church , the Syriac Catholic Church , the Maronite Catholic Church , the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church , the Malabar Independent Syrian Church ,

14688-557: The religion as members invited interested outsiders to secret Christian assemblies (Greek: ekklēsia ) that met in private homes (see house church ). Commerce and trade also played a role in Christianity's spread as Christian merchants traveled for business. Christianity appealed to marginalized groups (women, slaves) with its message that "in Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, neither male nor female, neither slave nor free" ( Galatians 3:28 ). Christians also provided social services to

14824-473: The right to declare a universal date for the observance of Easter (see also Easter controversy ). Some postulate, however, that Alexandria was not only a center of Christianity, but was also a center for Christian-based Gnostic sects. The tradition of John the Apostle was strong in Anatolia (the near-east , part of modern Turkey, the western part was called the Roman province of Asia ). The authorship of

14960-581: The role of Bishop of Antioch as first being held by Peter. The Gospel of Matthew and the Apostolic Constitutions may have been written there. The church father Ignatius of Antioch was its third bishop. The School of Antioch, founded in 270, was one of two major centers of early church learning. The Curetonian Gospels and the Syriac Sinaiticus are two early (pre- Peshitta ) New Testament text types associated with Syriac Christianity . It

15096-402: The same preference was adopted by later scholars, with one important distinction: in western scholarly use, Syrian/Syriac label was subsequently reduced from the original Greek designation for Aramaic language in general to a more specific (narrower) designation for Edessan Aramaic language, that in its literary and liturgical form came to be known as Classical Syriac . That reduction resulted in

15232-440: The same time stands in contradiction both with original Greek, and later native (acquired) uses of Syrian/Syriac labels as common designations for Aramaic language in general. Those problems were addressed by prominent scholars, including Theodor Nöldeke (d. 1930) who noted on several occasions that term " Syriac language " has come to have two distinctive meanings, wider and narrower, with first (historical and wider) serving as

15368-482: The shape of the root) form of the verb, which carries the usual meaning of the word. The next is the intensive stem, or Paʿʿel , form of the verb, which usually carries an intensified meaning . The third is the extensive stem, or ʾAp̄ʿel , form of the verb, which is often causative in meaning. Each of these stems has its parallel passive conjugation: the ʾEṯpəʿel , ʾEṯpaʿʿal and ʾEttap̄ʿal respectively. To these six cardinal stems are added

15504-507: The sharing of common texts, some of which were later collected in the New Testament. Jerusalem was the first center of the Christian Church according to the Book of Acts . The apostles lived and taught there for some time after Pentecost. According to Acts, the early church was led by the Apostles, foremost among them Peter and John . When Peter left Jerusalem after Herod Agrippa I tried to kill him, James, brother of Jesus appears as

15640-460: The spoken language of much of the region, excepting northern Iraq and Mount Lebanon. The Mongol invasions and conquests of the 13th century, and the religiously motivated massacres of Syriac Christians by Timur further contributed to the rapid decline of the language. In many places outside of Upper Mesopotamia and Mount Lebanon , even in liturgy, it was replaced by Arabic. Revivals of literary Syriac in recent times have led to some success with

15776-531: The spread of Syriac Christianity, it also became a liturgical language of eastern Christian communities as far as India and China . It flourished from the 4th to the 8th century, and continued to have an important role during the next centuries, but by the end of the Middle Ages it was gradually reduced to liturgical use, since the role of vernacular language among its native speakers was overtaken by several emerging Neo-Aramaic languages . Classical Syriac

15912-512: The surrounding area after the destruction of the city until its rebuilding as Aelia Capitolina in c.  130 AD , when all Jews were banished from Jerusalem. The first Gentiles to become Christians were God-fearers , people who believed in the truth of Judaism but had not become proselytes (see Cornelius the Centurion ). As Gentiles joined the young Christian movement, the question of whether they should convert to Judaism and observe

16048-582: The synagogue, as there was a local Jewish community . A Christian community was quickly established in Athens, although it may not have been large initially. A common tradition identifies the Areopagite as the first bishop of the Christian community in Athens, while another tradition mentions Hierotheos the Thesmothete . The succeeding bishops were not all of Athenian descent: Narkissos was believed to have come from Palestine, and Publius from Malta. Quadratus

16184-451: The term "Syriac" is preferred over the alternative form "Syrian", since the latter is much more polysemic and commonly relates to Syria in general. That distinction is used in English as a convention and does not exist on the ancient endonymic level. Several compound terms like "Syriac Aramaic", "Syrian Aramaic" or "Syro-Aramaic" are also used, thus emphasizing both the Aramaic nature of

16320-512: The third and fourth centuries, local Edessan Aramaic language became the vehicle of the specific Christian culture that came to be known as the Syriac Christianity . Because of theological differences, Syriac-speaking Christians diverged during the 5th century into the Church of the East that followed the East Syriac Rite under the Persian rule, and the Syriac Orthodox Church that followed

16456-572: The three Pillars of the Church : James the Just, Peter, and John . Later called the Council of Jerusalem , according to Pauline Christians , this meeting (among other things) confirmed the legitimacy of the evangelizing mission of Barnabas and Paul to the Gentiles . It also confirmed that Gentile converts were not obligated to follow the Mosaic Law , especially the practice of male circumcision , which

16592-612: The wider historical region of Syria should not be overlooked by improper and unspecific use of Syrian/Syriac labels. Diversity of Aramaic dialects was recorded by Theodoret of Cyrus (d. c. 466), who accepted Syrian/Syriac labels as common Greek designations for the Aramaic language in general, stating that " the Osroënians, the Syrians, the people of the Euphrates, the Palestinians, and

16728-410: The words of historian Diarmaid MacCulloch : Whether through some mass delusion, some colossal act of wishful thinking, or through witness to a power or force beyond any definition known to Western historical analysis, those who had known Jesus in life and had felt the shattering disappointment of his death proclaimed that he lived still, that he loved them still, and that he was to return to earth from

16864-419: The written language or the book language ' ) or simply kṯoḇonōyō , or kṯowonōyō , while in its East-Syriac tradition, it is known as leššānā ʔatīqā ( lit.   ' the old language ' ) or saprāyā ( lit.   ' scribal or literary ' ). It emerged during the first century AD from a local Eastern Aramaic dialect that was spoken in the ancient region of Osroene , centered in

17000-630: Was between those, such as the followers of the "Pillars of the Church", led by James , who believed, following his interpretation of the Great Commission , that the church must observe the Torah , i.e. the rules of traditional Judaism, and Paul the Apostle , who called himself "Apostle to the Gentiles", who believed there was no such necessity. The main concern for the Apostle Paul, which he subsequently expressed in greater detail with his letters directed to

17136-593: Was condemned as execrable and repulsive in the Greco-Roman world during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean , and was especially adversed in Classical civilization from ancient Greeks and Romans , who valued the foreskin positively. The resulting Apostolic Decree in Acts 15 is theorized to parallel the seven Noahide laws found in the Old Testament . However, modern scholars dispute

17272-477: Was defeated, Hadrian barred Jews from the city, except for the day of Tisha B'Av , thus the subsequent Jerusalem bishops were Gentiles ("uncircumcised") for the first time. The general significance of Jerusalem to Christians entered a period of decline during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire . According to Eusebius , Jerusalem Christians escaped to Pella , in the Decapolis ( Transjordan ), at

17408-707: Was executed in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate" (see Tacitus on Jesus ) . The decades after the crucifixion of Jesus are known as the Apostolic Age because the Disciples (also known as Apostles ) were still alive. Important Christian sources for this period are the Pauline epistles and the Acts of the Apostles . After the death of Jesus, his followers established Christian groups in cities, such as Jerusalem. The movement quickly spread to Damascus and Antioch , capital of Roman Syria and one of

17544-635: Was known to be different from that of the "Osroenians" (speakers of Edessan Aramaic). Native ( endonymic ) use of the term Aramaic language (Aramaya/Oromoyo) among its speakers has continued throughout the medieval period, as attested by the works of prominent writers, including the Oriental Orthodox Patriarch Michael of Antioch (d. 1199). Since the proper dating of the Cave of Treasures , modern scholars were left with no indications of native Aramaic adoption of Syrian/Syriac labels before

17680-474: Was mostly killed or removed. According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis , the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish Revolt . According to Epiphanius of Salamis, the Cenacle survived at least to Hadrian's visit in 130 AD . A scattered population survived. The Sanhedrin relocated to Jamnia . Prophecies of the Second Temple's destruction are found in

17816-519: Was one of the three whose bishops were recognized at the First Council of Nicaea (325) as exercising jurisdiction over the adjoining territories. Alexandria , in the Nile delta , was established by Alexander the Great . Its famous libraries were a center of Hellenistic learning. The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament began there and the Alexandrian text-type is recognized by scholars as one of

17952-488: Was producing the most treasured collection of poetry and theology in the Edessan Aramaic language, that later became known as Syriac. In 489, many Syriac-speaking Christians living in the eastern reaches of the Roman Empire fled to the Sasanian Empire to escape persecution and growing animosity with Greek-speaking Christians. The Christological differences with the Church of the East led to the bitter Nestorian Schism in

18088-519: Was theologian Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), who was referring to the language as " Syrian or Aramaic " (Suryāyā awkēt Ārāmāyā), and also as Urhāyā , when referring to Edessan Aramaic, or Naḥrāyā when pointing to the region of Bet-Nahrain (Aramaic term for Mesopotamia in general). Plurality of terms among native speakers (ārāmāyā, urhāyā, naḥrāyā, and suryāyā) was not reflected in Greek and Latin terminology, that preferred Syrian/Syriac designation, and

18224-522: Was there that Peter baptized the centurion Cornelius , considered the first gentile convert. Paul sought refuge there, once staying at the house of Philip the Evangelist , and later being imprisoned there for two years (estimated to be 57–59). The Apostolic Constitutions (7.46) state that the first Bishop of Caesarea was Zacchaeus the Publican . After Hadrian's siege of Jerusalem (c. 133), Caesarea became

18360-435: Was thus believed to be proponent of various linguistic notions and tendencies expressed in the mentioned work. Since modern scholarly analyses have shown that the work in question was written much later ( c. 600) by an unknown author, several questions had to be reexamined. In regard to the scope and usage of Syrian/Syriac labels in linguistic terminology, some modern scholars have noted that diversity of Aramaic dialects in

18496-618: Was thus made capital of Roman Creta et Cyrenaica . St. Titus is believed to have been the first bishop. The city was sacked by the pirate Abu Hafs in 828. Paul the Apostle preached in Macedonia , and also in Philippi , located in Thrace on the Thracian Sea coast. According to Hippolytus of Rome , Andrew the Apostle preached in Thrace , on the Black Sea coast and along the lower course of

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