The Kumul Khanate was a semi-autonomous feudal Turco-Mongol khanate (equivalent to a banner in Mongolia ) within the Qing dynasty and then the Republic of China until it was abolished by Xinjiang governor Jin Shuren in 1930. The khanate was located in present-day Hami prefecture of Xinjiang .
110-754: The khans of Kumul were direct descendants of the khans of the Chagatai Khanate , and thus the last descendants of the Mongol Empire . The Ming dynasty established a tributary relationship with the Turpan Khanate (division of Moghulistan ), that put end to Kara Del in 1513 after its conquest by Mansur Khan in the Ming–Turpan conflict . The khanate paid tribute to the Ming. The Turpan Khanate under Sultan Said Baba Khan supported Chinese Muslim Ming loyalists during
220-744: A puppet state in Xinjiang with the Ottoman Prince as Sultan. Mustafa Ali was the Turkish advisor to the Uyghurs in the First East Turkestan Republic . Muhsin Çapanoğlu was also an advisor, and they both had Pan- Turanist views. Mahmud Nedim Bey, another of their colleagues, was also an advisor to the Uyghur separatists. The Turkish government under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk reacted angrily at this plot and
330-547: A Bolshevik plan to destroy religion. A minor battle on February-may , 1933, in which Chinese Muslim troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Ismail Beg kilometres (40 miles) north of the mountains. On 25 February rebel forces entered Aksu Old City, shot all the Chinese residents and seized their property. when they rose up in revolt. Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack
440-727: A Russian? You know how the Tungans hate the Russians", Vasel told him to pretend to be German. The Chinese Muslim forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang 's forces in Kashgar , allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934, to Yengi Hissar , south of the city. The Hui army crushed
550-793: A Soviet armored car column at the Battle of Dawan Cheng . Western traveler Peter Fleming speculated that the Soviet Union was not in Xinjiang to keep out the Japanese but to create their own sphere of influence. Unfortunately for the White Russian emigres, the Soviet Red Army stationed NKVD units to purge the White Russians on the basis that they might be threats to Sheng Shicai. Ma's retreating forces began advancing down to southern Xinjiang to destroy
660-515: A White Sun banners in his army and Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun armbands. He himself wore a Kuomintang armband and a New 36th Division uniform to show that he was the legitimate representative of the Chinese government. Due to his severe abuse and brutality, both the Turkic (Uyghurs) and Han Chinese hated the Hui officer who was in charge of Barkul, Ma Ying-piao, whom Ma Zhongying appointed. Kumul
770-497: A column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers from Yarkand New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslims and Chinese civilians. A minor battle in which Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang attacked and defeated Uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 Uighur and Kirghiz were killed. Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay , attempted to take
880-473: A disastrous defeat by Yuan forces. In 1301 they were defeated again in an attack on Karakorum and Kaidu died during the retreat. After Kaidu's death in 1301, both Duwa and Kaidu 's son Chapar recognized Yuan authority in 1303. However Duwa threw off his allegiance to Chapar. Both the Yuan dynasty and Duwa attacked Chapar, forcing him to surrender his territory to Duwa in 1306. Meanwhile, Prince Turghai invaded
990-4620: A genuine Chagatayid. The Chagatai Mongols remained mostly nomadic in their mode of government and did not settle down in urban centers until the late 15th century. The Mongols of the Chagatai Khanate treated the urban dwellers of Transoxiana and the Tarim Basin as dependencies. Chagatai Khan (1226–1242) Qara Hülëgü (1st. 1242–1246) Yesü Möngke (1246–1252) Qara Hülëgü (2nd. 1252) Orghana (regent) Mubarak Shah (1st. 1252–1260) Alghu (1260–1266) Mubarak Shah (2nd. 1266) Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq (1266–1270) Kaidu (de facto ruler) Negübei (1270–1272) Kaidu (de facto ruler) Buqa Temür (127?–1282) Kaidu and Chapar (de facto rulers) Duwa (1282–1306) Duwa (1306-1307) Könchek (1307–1308) Taliqu (1308–1309) Kebek (1st. 1309–1310) Esen Buqa I (1310–1318) Kebek (2nd. 1318–1325) Eljigidey (1325–1329) Duwa Temür (1329–1330) Tarmashirin (1331–1334) Buzan (1334–1335) Changshi (1335–1338) Yesun Temur (1338–1342) 'Ali-Sultan (1342) Muhammad I ibn Pulad (1342–1343) Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur (1343–1346) Amir Qazaghan (de facto ruler) Danishmendji (1346–1348) Amir Qazaghan and Abdullah (de facto rulers) Bayan Qulï (1348–1358) Abdullah (de facto ruler) Shah Temur (1358) Tughlugh Timur (1360–1363) Amir Husayn and Timur (de facto rulers) Adil-Sultan (1363) Amir Husayn (de facto ruler) Khabul Shah (1364–1370) Timur (de facto ruler) Suurgatmish (1370–1384) Timur (de facto ruler) Sultan Mahmud (1384–1402) Tughlugh Timur (1347–1363) Ilyas Khoja (1363–1368) Qamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat (1368–1392) Khizr Khoja (1389–1399) Shams-i-Jahan (1399–1408) Muhammad Khan (1408–1415) Naqsh-i-Jahan (1415–1418) Uwais Khan (1st. 1418–1421) Sher Muhammad (1421–1425) Uwais Khan (2nd. 1425–1429) Satuq Khan (1429–1434) Esen Buqa II (1429–1462) Dost Muhammad (1462–1468) Kebek Sultan (1469–1472) Yunus Khan (1456–1487) Mahmud Khan (1487–1508) Mansur Khan (1508–1514) Sultan Said Khan (1514–1533) Abdurashid Khan (1533–1560) Abdul Karim Khan (1560-1591) Muhammad Sultan (1591–1610) Shudja ad Din Ahmad Khan (1610-1618) Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan (1618–1630) Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) (1630-1633) Mahmud Sultan (Qilich Khan) (1633–1636) Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) (1636-1638) Abdallah (1638–1669) Nur ad-Din Sultan (1667-1668) Ismail Khan (1st. 1669) YuIbars Khan (1669–1670) Ismail Khan (2nd. 1670-1678) Abd ar-Rashid Khan II (1678–1680) Afaq Khoja (1680–1690) Muhammad Imin Khan (1690-1692) Yahiya Khoja (1692–1695) Akbash Khan (1695-1705) Ahmad Alaq (1487–1503) Mansur Khan (1503–1548) Shah Khan (1543–1560) Muhammad Khan ibn Mansur Khan (1570) Koraish Sultan (1570–1588) Muhammad Sultan (1588–1591) Abduraim Khan (1591-1636) Abu'l Muhammad Khan (1636-1653) Ibrahim Sultan (1653–1655) Sultan Said Baba Khan (1655–1680) Kumul Rebellion Stalemate between China and Xinjiang clique [REDACTED] Jin Shuren [REDACTED] Zhang Peiyuan † [REDACTED] Sheng Shicai [REDACTED] Khoja Niyas (After July 1933) [REDACTED] Ma Shaowu (anti-Russian) [REDACTED] Pavel Pappengut [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Joseph Stalin [REDACTED] Muhammad Amin Bughra [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Khoja Niyas [REDACTED] Osman Batur [REDACTED] Abdullah Bughra † [REDACTED] Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra † [REDACTED] Timur Beg † [REDACTED] Osman Ali [REDACTED] Tawfiq Bey [REDACTED] Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Mustafa Ali Bay First Sino-Uyghur Conflicts Warlords Wars Second Sino-Uyghur Conflicts Sino-Soviet Conflict in Xinjiang The Kumul Rebellion ( Chinese : 哈密暴動 ; pinyin : Hāmì bàodòng ; lit. ' Hami Uprising')
1100-449: A native of Kumul and a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Kuomintang government, soon arrived in Urumqi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. He turned out to be correct, since the Kuomintang secretly ordered Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan to attack Sheng's regime in Urumqi. As a result, he executed three leaders of
1210-724: A printing operation. The Bughra-led government then used the Swedish Mission Press to print and distribute media from Life of East Turkestan , the state-run media of the rebels. The forced removal of the Swedes was accompanied by the slaughter of Hindus in Khotan by the Islamic Turkic rebels. The Emirs of Khotan killed the Hindus while they forced the Swedes out and declared Shariah in Khotan on March 16, 1933. Hostility towards Hindus predated
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#17328489354121320-539: A puppet khan ( Soyurgatmish ) on the throne to legitimize his rule, but his khans were members of the house of Ögedei rather than descendants of Chagatai. Ilyas Khoja attacked Timur in 1364 and defeated him on the north bank of the Syr Darya . He then besieged Samarkand but suffered harsh attrition due to an epidemic so that by the next year he was forced to retreat from Transoxania. The Dughlat Qamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat rebelled and killed Ilyas Khoja in 1368, taking
1430-795: A religious procession were attacked by Muslim Uyghurs. In 1896 two Uyghur Turkis attacked a Hindu merchant and the British consul Macartney demanded the Uyghurs be punished by flogging. Antagonism against the Hindus ran high among the Muslim Turkic Uyghur rebels in Xinjiang's southern area. Muslims plundered the possessions in Karghalik of Rai Sahib Dip Chand, who was the aksakal of Britain, and his fellow Hindus on March 24, 1933, and in Keryia they slaughtered Indian Hindus. These Hindu diaspora communities originated from Sindh's Shikarpur district. The slaughter of
1540-677: A secret treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1931 that quickly led to suppression of the Kumul Rebellion and the deblockading of Kumul by provincial troops on November 30, 1931. Jin Shuren received large gold credits from the Soviet government for acquiring arms and weapons from the Soviet army and opening Soviet trade agencies in eight provincial towns: Ghulja , Chuguchak , Altai , Urumqi , Karashahr , Kucha , Aksu , Kashgar , Yarkand , Khotan . The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed since he had signed
1650-505: A separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. The various groups of rebels were not united (some even fought each other). The main part of the war was waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government. He was supported by Chiang Kai-shek , the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang. Governor Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after
1760-735: A treaty with the Soviet Union without central government approval. A separate Uyghur uprising emerged in Khotan , located in Southern Xinjiang . It has been suggested that the United Kingdom may have supported this rebellion as a means to counter Soviet Union influence. Unlike the Kumul Uyghurs, whose primary goal was the restoration of the Kumul Khanate and the removal of Jin Shuren ,
1870-730: Is uncertain when Buqa Temür died, but after that, Baraq's son Duwa was enthroned as khan. Meanwhile, Abaqa invaded Transoxania in 1272 and sacked Bukhara, carrying off 50,000 captives. In 1275, Duwa joined Kaidu in the war against the Yuan dynasty but were repelled. In 1297, Duwa invaded the Punjab and devastated the region, but was defeated. Several invasions of the Delhi Sultanate also occurred but none were able to make any headway. In September 1298, Duwa captured Temür Khan 's son-in-law, Korguz, and put him to death, but immediately after that suffered
1980-502: The Battle of Tutung . Kamal Kaya Efendi , a former Ottoman Turkish military officer who was Ma Zhongying's chief of staff, was captured by Soviet agents in Kumul in 1934, but instead of being executed he was made Commissar for Road Construction in Xinjiang, possibly because he was a Soviet agent himself. In January 1934 Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area in
2090-446: The Delhi Sultanate in 1303 and looted the Delhi region. In 1304 they invaded again but suffered a crushing defeat. Duwa died soon after and was succeeded by his son Könchek , who ruled only for a year and a half before he died. One of Buqa Temür 's brothers, Taliqu , seized power, but Duwa's family rebelled and killed him at a banquet. Duwa's younger son Kebek became khan. Kebek invaded
2200-617: The Golden Horde khan Mengu-Timur in attacking Baraq. With a Golden Horde army of 50,000 at his back, Kaidu forced Baraq to flee to Transoxania . In 1267, Baraq accepted peace with Kaidu, and relinquished the territory east of Transoxania. Kaidu then coerced Baraq into invading the Ilkhanate . Baraq attacked first, defeating Prince Buchin, the governor of Khorasan , and brother of Abaqa Khan . Abaqa rushed from Azerbaijan and defeated Baraq near Herat on 22 July 1270, forcing him to retreat. On
2310-464: The Kumul Khanate , a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The Kumul Khans were Chagataids, and hence the last ruling descendants of Genghis Khan. According to British missionaries Mildred Cable and Francesca French , who knew the last Khan Maqsud Shah, the existence of the Khanate of Kumul was important to the Uyghurs, who tolerated Chinese rule so long as their own government
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#17328489354122420-595: The Kumul Rebellion , in which Yulbars Khan attempted to restore the heir Nasir to the throne. The list of the Kumul Khanate khans is as follows: Chagatai Khanate The Chagatai Khanate , also known as the Chagatai Ulus , was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of Genghis Khan , and his descendants and successors. At its height in
2530-637: The Murgab and reached as far as Herat , but was forced to retreat when the Yuan dynasty attacked him from the east. The Yuan army devastated the Issyk-Kul region. In 1315 the Chagatayid prince Yasa'ur defected to the Ilkhanate, only to rebel, taking Khorasan . Both Chagatai and Ilkhanate forces attacked Yasa'ur. He was killed as he fled. Esen Buqa I died in 1318, at which point Kebek returned to power. He made peace with
2640-683: The Qing dynasty in 1696 and governed by descendants of Chagatai Khan, was abolished during the Republic of China in 1930, ending the dynasty. The Chagatai Khanate was also known as the Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus (the Middle Mongolian Empire). For example, Giovanni de' Marignolli , who visited Yuan dynasty in the 1340s , referred to Almaliq (the capital of the Chagatai Khanate) as "Almalek of
2750-520: The Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34) . Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. Sheng Shicai commanded Manchurian and White Russian troops commanded by Colonel Pappengut. Ma and Zhang's Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim forces were on the verge of defeating Sheng when he requested help from the Soviet Union. This led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang and Ma Zhongying 's retreat after
2860-450: The Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang . Zhang Peiyuan's forces were defeated and he committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Zhongying's troops were forced to retreat from the Soviet military machine's aerial bombing and were pushed back from Urumqi during the Battle of Tutung . Soviet assistance resulted in a rare White Russian and Soviet temporary military alliance against Ma. Ma wiped out
2970-560: The Tarim Basin . Chagatai was not fully independent in his khanate however and still received orders from Karakorum . When he dismissed the governor of Transoxania, Mahmud Yalavach , Ögedei Khan reinstated Mahmud, whose dynasty continued to administer the region even after the death of Chagatai. In 1238 there was a Muslim uprising in Bukhara , but Mahmud's son Mas'ud crushed it the next year before Mongol troops were able to arrive, thereby saving
3080-631: The Timurids of Samarkand tried to recover Tashkent but were defeated by Mahmud. In 1487, Mahmud gave refuge to Muhammad Shaybani , who then seized Bukhara and Samarkand from the Timurids in 1500, making himself ruler of Transoxania . Muhammad immediately turned against Mahmud, who called his brother Ahmad Alaq for help, and defeated both the Moghul khans and took them prisoner. He released them soon after but kept Tashkent and Sairam . Ahmad died soon after. Mahmud
3190-578: The Toluid Civil War . Ariq Böke attacked him and while Alghu experienced initial success in fending off Ariq Böke's army, was forced to flee to Samarkand in 1263. Ariq Böke devastated the Ili region in his absence. Alghu was able to recruit a new army with the aid of Orghana and Mas'ud Yalavach. He then went on to defeat an invasion by Kaidu and drive out Ariq Böke, who surrendered to Kublai in 1264. Alghu died in 1265 and Orghana placed her son, Mubarak Shah, on
3300-601: The Uyghurs in Khotan sought complete independence and harbored strong opposition toward both the Han Chinese and Dungan people populations. They were led by Muhammad Amin Bughra and his brothers Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra . Their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki , called for the expulsion of the Dungans in a proclamation: The Dungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from
3410-429: The 1340s. Transoxania was ruled by Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur . In 1346 a tribal chief, Amir Qazaghan , killed Qazan and set up Danishmendji as puppet khan. Danishmendji was killed a year later and replaced with Bayan Qulï . Qazaghan made Herat a tributary in 1351. He was assassinated in 1357 and was succeeded by his son Abdullah , who killed Bayan Qulï in 1358. This aroused the anger of local lords such as Hajji Beg ,
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3520-534: The 1342 painting The Martyrdom of the Franciscans , by Ambrogio Lorenzetti . Giovanni de' Marignolli , a papal legate, arrived in the Ili valley the following year on his way to the Yuan dynasty . He built a church and baptized some people during his stay, and the presence of Christianity lasted until the end of the Mongol era. The khanate became increasingly unstable in the following years and split in two during
3630-640: The 1646 Milayin rebellion against the Qing dynasty. Beginning in 1647, after the defeat of the Ming loyalists, during which the Kumul Prince Turumtay was killed at the hands of Qing forces, Kumul submitted to the Qing and sent tribute. It came under Qing rule and remained a khanate as a part of the Qing Empire. The title " Jasak Tarkhan" was granted to Abdullah Beg Tarkhan (son of Kumul ruler Muhammad Shah-i-Beg Tarkhan), ruler of Hami in 1696 after submitting to
3740-433: The Chagatai Khanate was called the "Middle Empire" because it was located exactly in the middle of Eurasia. Matsui Dai introduced the expression "[missing] -dadu mongγo[l] u(l)us" in a Uighur script document excavated from Turfan , and based on the example of "Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)," argued that this should be read as "Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus". Matsui proposed that "it seems probable that Dua or his descendants took
3850-627: The Delhi Sutunate again in 1305, looting the Multan region, but suffered a defeat on the way back. Chapar took advantage of the political turmoil to attack Kebek but was defeated and fled to the Yuan dynasty. Another kuriltai was held in the Chagatai Khanate, which elected another of Duwa's sons, Esen Buqa I , who took the throne ceded by Kebek. In 1315, Esen Buqa invaded the Ilkhanate in support of Duwa's grandson, Dawud Khoja, who had set himself up in eastern Afghanistan . He defeated an Ilkhanate army on
3960-411: The East Turkestan Republic. Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union accused Ma Zhongying, a Muslim and ardently anti-Soviet, of being used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with Manchukuo . Sheng claimed that he captured two Japanese officers on Ma's staff. However, not a single claim of Sheng's could be proven, and he did not provide any evidence for his allegations that Ma
4070-422: The First East Turkestan Republic. He sent out an advance guard under Ma Fuyuan to attack the Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz at Kashgar. At this point Chiang Kai-shek was ready to send Huang Shaohong and his expeditionary force of 15,000 troops to assist Ma Zhongying against Sheng, but when Chiang heard about the Soviet invasion he decided to withdraw to avoid an international incident if his troops directly engaged
4180-402: The Ili region. Yunus tried to conquer Kashgar but was repelled by Sayyid Ali and Esen Buqa II. Esen Buqa II died in 1462. His son Dost Muhammad was an inexperienced 17 year old. He plundered the territory of the Dughlats. By the time he died in 1469, his realm was in general revolt. Yunus took advantage of the situation to capture the Moghul capital Aksu . Dost Muhammad's young son Kebek Sultan
4290-403: The Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty and reigned until 1325. Kebek was succeeded by his three brothers in succession. Eljigidey and Duwa Temür each reigned for only a few months. Tarmashirin (1326–1334) converted to Islam and raided the Delhi Sultanate , reaching as far as Delhi . Tarmashirin was brought down by an anti-Muslim rebellion of the eastern tribes. A son of Duwa , Changshi ,
4400-524: The Indian Hindus became known as the "Karghalik Outrage", in which Muslims killed nine of them. The killing of two Hindus at the hands of Uighurs took place in Shamba Bazaar. The Uighurs plundered the valuables of slaughtered Indian Hindus in Posgam on March 25 as on the previous day in Karghalik. Killings of Hindus also took place in Khotan at the hands of the Bughra Amirs. The Japanese invited an Ottoman prince, Abdulkerim , and several anti-Atatürk Young Turk exiles from Turkey to assist them in setting up
4510-439: The Khotan-based Swedish missionaries . Their demand for the withdrawal of the Swedish missionaries came with the enactment of Shariah on March 16, 1933. In the name of Islam, Uyghur leader Amir Abdullah Bughra violently assaulted the Yarkand-based Swedish missionaries and sought to execute them; however, they were ultimately banished due to the British who interceded in their favor. The East Turkestan Republic, having banished
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4620-417: The Kuomintang government of China. The Turkic populace called Ma Hushan their padishah (king). Meanwhile, in nearby Kashgar, the representatives of Sheng Shicai including Chinese nationalist Christian Liu Bin and Turfan merchant Mahmud Shizhang took over control. Sheng had the Xinjiang provincial official previously in charge, Ma Shaowu, summoned to Urumqi. When Ma Shaowu, sensing a trap, refused to go, he
4730-465: The Kyrgyz-Kazakhs from seizing the Ili region. Abdurashid was succeeded in 1565 by his son Abdul Karim Khan , who shifted the capital to Yarkand. Abdul was succeeded in 1590 by his brother Muhammad Sultan , who repelled an invasion by the Khanate of Bukhara under Abdullah Khan II . Muhammad died in 1610 and was succeeded by his son Shudja ad Din Ahmad Khan , who was assassinated in 1619, and replaced by Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan. Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan
4840-472: The Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)". In addition, the Catalan Atlas of 1375 refers to the area corresponding to Chagatai Khanate as "Imperium Medorum", a possible alternate name of "Imperium Medium". In addition to the Latin sources mentioned above, Ibn Battuta records in Arabic that "His country [is in] the middle between the four of the powerful kings on the earth, i.e., King of China, King of India, King of Iraq and King Özbeg". This description suggests that
4950-571: The Moghul khan. In 1389 Timur attacked Khizr Khoja instead and forced him to flee into the Gobi Desert . In 1390 Timur invaded Moghulistan and once again failed to find Qamar, but Qamar, having fled, was never heard of again. Khizr Khoja returned to Moghulistan and assumed power once more. He gave his daughter in marriage to Timur and made peace with him in 1397. Khizr Khoja died in 1399 and was succeeded by his three sons in succession: Shams-i-Jahan (1399–1408), Muhammad Khan (1408–1415), and Naqsh-i-Jahan (1415–1418). Upon Khizr Khoja's death, Timur took
5060-407: The Oirats. Shah died in 1560 and Muhammad succeeded him. Muhammad had to fight against a third brother, Sufi Sultan, who tried to enlist the Ming in support of his claim to the throne. After Muhammad's death in 1570, the Turpan Khanate fades from historical texts. The last thing heard of them are embassies sent from Turpan to Beijing in 1647 and 1657. The Qing dynasty regarded them as embassies from
5170-418: The Qing as a vassal during the Dzungar–Qing War . The khanate had fought against the Dzungar Khanate for the Qing. Kumul continued as a vassal khanate when Xinjiang was changed into a province in 1884 after the Dungan revolt . The khans also were given the title of Qinwang (Prince of the First Rank Chinese : 親王 ; pinyin : qīn wáng ) by the Qing Empire. The khans were allowed enormous power by
5280-631: The Qing court, with the exception of administering execution, which had to be allowed by a Chinese official posted in Kumul. The khans were officially vassals to the emperor of China, and every six years were required to visit Beijing to be a servant to the emperor during a period of 40 days. It was also known as the principality of Kumul, and the Chinese called it Hami. The khans were friendly to Chinese rule and authorities. The khan Muhammad and his son and successor Khan Maqsud Shah heavily taxed his subjects and extorted forced labor, which resulted in two rebellions against his rule in 1907 and 1912. The khan
5390-452: The Soviets. Georg Vasel, a German hired by the Central Government to build airstrips along the former Silk Road, recounted the massacres of the war. On one occasion, the road between Hami and Urumqi he was driving on was so strewn with corpses that he could not avoid them without causing the truck to overturn, and he had to drive directly over the corpses. When his White Russian driver, when meeting Ma Zhongying, asked "Must I tell him that I am
5500-410: The Swedish missionaries, tortured and jailed Christian converts, mainly Kirghiz and Uighurs. Muslims who had converted to Christianity were beheaded at the hands of the Amir's followers. Several hundred Uighur Muslims had converted to Christianity due to the missionary work of the Swedes, many of whom would suffer imprisonment and execution. For instance, after refusing to give up his Christian religion,
5610-591: The Turkish embassy in Japan denounced the Japanese plan to create a puppet state, labeling it a "Muslim Manchukuo ". TASS claimed the Uyghur Sabit Damulla invited "Turkish emigrants in India and Japan, with their anti-Kemalist organizations, to organize his military forces." Mass defections occurred on all three sides during the rebellion. Ma Zhancang and his Chinese Muslim army were originally allied to Timur Beg and his Uyghur army while marching on Kashgar. Zhancang and his army, however, defected to Muslim commander Ma Shaowu and his Han army and fought against Timur Beg and
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#17328489354125720-400: The Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) , Battle of Yarkand and Battle of Yangi Hissar . In the aftermath of the Islamic Republic, the Hui Chinese Muslims under Ma Zhongying's brother-in-law General Ma Hushan governed southern Xinjiang as an autonomous satrapy over the Turkic-speaking Muslims, sometimes called Tunganistan , in the name of
5830-480: The Uyghurs. The Kyrgyz levies under Osman Ali were originally allied to Chinese Muslim commander Ma Shaowu and his Han army, but they defected to Timur Beg's Uyghurs at the same time Ma Zhancang defected to Ma Shaowu. Han General Zhang Peiyuan and his Han Chinese Ili army originally fought for the provincial government under Jin Shuren against Ma Zhongying. However, Zhang Peiyuan and his Han army defected to Ma Zhongying and his Muslim army in 1933 and joined him in fighting
5940-404: The Xinjiang Muslims to fight Jin alone. The Kumul Uyghur commanders Yulbars and Khoja Niyaz had also been gaining aid from the Outer Mongolian Mongolian People's Republic , who themselves broke from China a few years prior with Soviet assistance. Ma Zhongying had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang, China's central government: if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang. Ma
6050-402: The assassination of Yang Zengxin , it was estimated that the aging Maqsud Shah ruled over a population of between 25,000 and 30,000 Kumulliks. The khan was responsible for levying taxes and dispensing justice; his administration rested on twenty one Begs, four of whom were responsible for Kumul itself, five others being responsible for the plains villages and the remaining twelve administering
6160-450: The assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Governor Yang Zengxin (Yang Tseng-sin) in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of Turkic peoples and openly antagonized them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin had also Chinese (Hui) Muslims in his provincial army like Ma Shaowu . In 1930 Jin annexed
6270-415: The brand-new official state name Dumdadu Mongol Ulus in order to affirm that their polity was renewed, as did the emperor Qubilai, who in 1271 adopted the official state name Dai Ön Yeke Mongol Ulus. When Genghis Khan died in 1227, his son Chagatai Khan inherited the regions roughly corresponding to the defunct Qara Khitai Empire: Issyk-Kul , Ili River , Chu River , Talas River , Transoxania , and
6380-431: The campaign, Said fell ill from altitude sickness and died in July 1533 on the homeward journey. He was succeeded by his son Abdurashid Khan . Abdurashid came into conflict with the Dughlats and persecuted one of their leaders, Sayyid Muhammad-mirza. Abdurashid spent his reign fighting the Kyrgyz people and the Kazakhs , who made incursions on the Ili region and Issyk Kul . He was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing
6490-413: The city. The Kirghiz were not amused at how their rebellion was crushed the previous year by Ma Shaowu, and now he wanted them to defend the city. They defected en masse to the enemy. However, Ma Zhancang also entered into secret negotiations with Ma Shaowu; he and his troops soon defected to the Han Chinese garrison in the city. During the Battle of Kashgar (1933) the city changed hands multiple times as
6600-652: The confused factions battled each other. The Kirghiz began to murder any Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, and fighting broke out in the streets. Timur Beg became sympathetic to the pro-independence rebels of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki , while Ma Zhancang proclaimed his allegiance to the Chinese Kuomintang government and notified everyone that all former Chinese officials would keep their posts. Ma Zhancang arranged for Timur Beg to be killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque . Afghan King Mohammad Zahir Shah provided weapons and support to
6710-477: The continued existence of the Khanate of Kumul was also of psychological importance to the Uyghurs of Turfan and the Tarim Basin, who were tolerant to Chinese rule so long as their own seat of the government was firmly established at Hami under Khan Maqsud Shah who still hold the proud title of King of the Gobi. Upon Maqsud Shah's death on 6 June 1930 Jin Shuren replaced the khanate with three normal provincial administrative districts Hami, Yihe, and Yiwu. This set off
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#17328489354126820-411: The convert Uighur Habil was executed in 1933. The East Turkestan Republic also subjected former Muslim Christian converts like Joseph Johannes Khan to jail, torture and abuse after he refused to give up Christianity in favor of Islam. After the British interceded to free Khan, he was instead forced to leave his land and in November 1933 he came to Peshawar. The Swedish Mission Society had previously run
6930-437: The east, the powerful Dughlats enthroned a son of Esen Buqa I , Tughlugh Timur as khan of Moghulistan in 1347. In 1350, Tughlugh converted to Islam . Hajji split Transoxania with Bayan Selduz but they were unable to stabilize the realm and it fell into disarray. In 1360, Tughlugh invaded Transoxania and conquered it. Hajji Beg fled in the face of overwhelming power. The future conqueror Timur entered Tughlugh's service and
7040-431: The emperor's orders. From 1363, the Chagatais progressively lost Transoxiana to the Timurids . The reduced realm came to be known as Moghulistan , which lasted until the late 15th century, when it broke off into the Yarkent Khanate and Turpan Khanate . In 1680, the remaining Chagatai domains lost their independence to the Dzungar Khanate . Finally, the Kumul Khanate , an autonomous division of China established during
7150-533: The establishment of the Islamic republic. Han Chinese men, Hindu men, Armenian men, Jewish men and Russian men married Uyghur Muslim women who could not find husbands . Uyghur merchants would harass Hindu money lenders by shouting at them if they ate beef or hanging cow skins on their quarters. Uyghur men also rioted and attacked Hindus for marrying Uyghur women in 1907 in Poskam and Yarkand like Ditta Ram calling for their beheading and stoning as they engaged in anti-Hindu violence. Hindu Indian money lenders engaging in
7260-408: The final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar, and Mansur in Turpan, otherwise known as Uyghuristan . In 1513, Kara Del submitted to Mansur and in 1517 Mansur moved to Hami permanently, where he launched raids against the Ming dynasty. Mansur was succeeded in 1545 by his son Shah Khan . Shah fought with his brother Muhammad, who seized part of Hami and allied with
7370-423: The khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled for only a brief period before Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between
7480-424: The late 13th century the khanate extended from the Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China , roughly corresponding to the area once ruled by the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty). Initially, the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of the Great Khan , but by the reign of Kublai Khan , Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq no longer obeyed
7590-573: The late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the Khojas . The Khojas were Muslims who claimed descent from Muhammad or from the first four Arab caliphs . By the reign of Said in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of
7700-460: The local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province. Yulbars Khan , advisor at the Kumul court, appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Hui Muslim warlord in Kansu , to overthrow Jin and restore the Khanate. Some scholars describe a Han officer forcing a Uyghur woman to submit to marrying him as the event that triggered the rebellion. Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to government forces there. Although he
7810-464: The mountainous regions of the Barkul and Karlik Tagh. Maqsud Shah also maintained a Uyghur militia which was reputed to be better trained than its counterpart in the predominantly Chinese Old City. The soil of the oasis was rich and well-cultivated, and the conditions of the Kumulliks before 1929 was one of relative contentment and prosperity. According to British missionaries Mildred Cable and Francesca French , both of whom knew Maqsud Shah personally,
7920-479: The nomadic way of life. His nomadic followers became alarmed by this action and departed for the steppes, taking with them Yunus' second son Ahmad Alaq . When Yunus died in 1486, his realm was divided between the Yarkent Khanate , ruled by Mahmud Khan in the west, and the Turpan Khanate , ruled by Ahmad Alaq in the northeast. In the west, Mahmud Khan ruled from Tashkent over the Yarkent Khanate . In 1488,
8030-643: The opportunity to send another army to pillage Moghul lands. Uwais Khan came to power in 1418. During his reign he waged war on the Oirats and was taken prisoner by their leader Esen Taishi . Due to Uwais' royal lineage, Esen Taishi treated him with respect and released him. Uwais suffered two more defeats against the Oirats and was captured a second time. He was let go after sending his sister as hostage to Esen Taishi's family. Uwais died in 1429. Two factions supporting his two sons Yunus Khan and Esen Buqa II quarreled over
8140-520: The oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Dungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Dungans also. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Dungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since the Dungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Dungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to
8250-452: The people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers...From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages, etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colours yellow and black are foul...They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down
8360-408: The populace from Mongol vengeance. Chagatai Khan died in 1242 and was succeeded by his grandson Qara Hülegü . He was too young to rule independently so the widowed khatun Ebuskun ruled as regent in his place. In 1246, Güyük Khan replaced him with one of his uncles, Yesü Möngke . Yesü Möngke came to power because he was a personal friend of Güyük Khan. He was a drunkard who left the affairs of
8470-496: The provincial government under Sheng Shicai and the Soviets and White Russians. Khoja Niyaz and his Kumulik Uyghur army defected from Ma Zhongying's side to the provincial government and the Soviets and received weapons from the Soviets. Ma Zhongying returned to Xinjiang in 1933 to continue the war. Ma Zhongying had an ambition to create an empire covering the whole of Soviet and Chinese Central Asia. Ma used Kuomintang Blue Sky with
8580-463: The provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang. Chiang Kai-shek sent Luo Wen'gan to Xinjiang, and Luo met with Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan, urging them to destroy Sheng. Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan then began a joint attack on Sheng's Manchurian and White Russian force during
8690-741: The rebels included Tevfik Pasha, a Pan-Islamist former Minister of the Saudi King Ibn Saud and formed cooperative ties with the Japanese ambassador to Afghanistan Kitada Masamoto, who was also closely monitoring the rebellion. This rebellion became entangled with the Kumul rebellion, when a Chinese Muslim and Uyghur army under Ma Zhancang and Timur Beg marched on Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu and his garrison of Han Chinese troops. Ma Shaowu began to panic and started raising Kirghiz levies under Osman Ali to defend
8800-428: The region now ardently hoped for Ma's expulsion by Sheng Shicai and an end to the seesaw military campaigns by both sides. Ma also forcibly conscripted Uyghurs into his army, turning them into infantry while only Chinese Muslims were allowed to be officers. This led to outrage among the Uyghurs at Kumul. Meanwhile, the Han Chinese commander of Ili , Zhang Peiyuan , entered into secret negotiations with Ma Zhongying, and
8910-489: The resistance against them in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II , son of Babak, as puppet khan. The new khan forced Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He
9020-507: The rule of Chagatai khans forever. Ahmad Alaq 's reduced nomadic realm (known as the Turpan Khanate ) came into frequent conflict with the Oirats , Kyrgyz people , and Kazakhs . According to the Tarikh-i Rashidi , the Oirats called him Alasha , "the Killer". In 1482, Hami was restored to Kara Del under Qanšin, but in 1488, Ahmad killed Qanšin and retook the city. The next year Ahmad
9130-545: The state to his wife and minister Beha ad-Din Marghinani. In 1252 he was deposed by Möngke Khan , who installed Qara Hülegü again. Qara Hülegü died on his way home and was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah . Mubarak Shah was too young to rule and state affairs were managed by his mother Orghana . In 1260, Ariq Böke replaced Mubarak Shah with Alghu , a grandson of Chagatai Khan . Alghu rebelled against Ariq Böke upon securing power and defected to Kublai Khan 's side in
9240-446: The throne for himself. Ilyas Khoja's brother Khizr Khoja fled to Turpan where he set up his own independent realm and converted the last Uyghurs there to Islam . In 1375, Timur invaded Moghulistan , looting the Ili region . Qamar retaliated by raiding Fergana until Timur put him to flight. Timur fell into an ambush and barely escaped, retreating to Samarkand . Timur attacked again in 1376 and 1383 but both times failed to capture
9350-597: The throne once again. Mubarak Shah was the first Chagatai khan to be converted to Islam. His rule was cut short by his cousin Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , who deposed him with the support of Kublai Khan. Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq came into conflict with Kublai Khan on the administration of the Tarim Basin . Baraq drove out an agent sent by Kublai to govern the region and when Kublai sent a detachment of 6,000 horsemen, Baraq met them with 30,000 men, forcing them to retreat. Baraq also came into conflict with Kaidu , who enlisted
9460-541: The throne with Esen Buqa II emerging as the victor. Yunus fled to Samarkand. Under Esen Buqa II, the powerful Dughlat Sayyid Ali, who had helped him to the throne, became very influential and held both Kucha and Kashgar . In 1451, Esen Buqa II raided the northern border of the Timurid Empire . The Timurid ruler Abu Sa'id Mirza schemed to split the Moghuls in two, so he summoned Yunus in 1456 and supported his authority in
9570-694: The two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, Afaq Khoja . Afaq fled to Tibet , where the 5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of Galdan Boshugtu Khan , ruler of the Dzungar Khanate . In 1680, Galdan led 120,000 Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan , which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in
9680-501: The two joined their armies together against Jin Shuren and the Russians. At this point in April 1933, Jin Shuren's White Russian Cossack troops in Urumqi mutinied and overthrew him, installing his subordinate Sheng Shicai to take his place. Under Soviet and Han Chinese communist advice, Sheng implemented a system of ethnocultural autonomy, including appointing the former Kumul rebel Khoja Niyaz as deputy governor of Xinjiang. Huang Mu-sung ,
9790-543: The uncle of Tamerlane . Hajji drove out Abdullah to the Hindu Kush , where he died. From then on the Chagatayid khans of Transoxania served as nothing more but figureheads until it was annexed by the Timurid Empire . The Timurids likewise continued to portray descendants of Chaghatai khans as khans (i.e. rulers) but in reality they were confined in their castles with no authority. They were political prisoners in Samarkand . In
9900-542: The way back he fell from his horse and was crippled so he spent the winter in Bukhara where he died not long after. He converted to Islam before his death. Baraq's four sons and two sons of Alghu rebelled against Kaidu in the wake of Baraq's death, but they were continually defeated. Kaidu enthroned Negübei as the khan in Transoxania. When Negübei rebelled, he was killed and replaced with another khan, Buqa Temür in 1274. It
10010-465: The yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan! The Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz formed an independent regime. On February 20, 1933, the Committee for National Revolution set up a provisional Khotan government with Sabit as prime minister and Muhammad Amin Bughra as head of the armed forces. It favored the establishment of an Islamic theocracy. Foreign volunteers who arrived to help
10120-426: Was a monarchist and tolerated the khanate. He was friendly toward the khan Maqsud Shah. Around the 1920s Japanese secret agents began exploring the Kumul area. It was that the khanate existed which prevented the Uyghurs from rebelling, since the khanate represented a government where a man of their ethnicity and religion was reigning. The abolition of the khanate led to a bloody rebellion . By 1928, shortly after
10230-563: Was a rebellion of Kumulik Uyghurs from 1931 to 1934 who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren , governor of Xinjiang. The Kumul Uyghurs were loyalists of the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the Khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in southern Xinjiang started
10340-616: Was appointed ruler of Shahr-i Sebz . After Tughlugh left Transoxania, Hajji Beg returned in force, only to be driven away again by Tughlugh. Hajji Beg was killed near Sebzewar . Tughlugh expanded his territory into Afghanistan by defeating Amir Husayn. Thus the Chagatai Khanate was restored under Tughlugh. Following Tughlugh's death in 1363, Timur and Amir Husayn took over Transoxiana. Timur and Amir Husayn forced Tughlugh's successor Ilyas Khoja out of Transoxania, and then Timur eliminated Amir Husayn as well, gaining mastery over Transoxiana (1369–1405). Like his predecessors, Timur maintained
10450-539: Was assisted by a chancellor/vizer/chief minister in his court. The last khan, Maqsud Shah, had Yulbars Khan , the tiger Prince of Hami, as his chancellor. The khan paid a small annual tribute to Urumchi and in return Xinjiang government paid him a formal subsidy of 1,200 silver taels each year—no doubt in Yang Zengxin's opinion a small enough sum for ensuring the continued obedience of the strategically vital khanate. The Han Chinese governor of Xinjiang, Yang Zengxin ,
10560-742: Was captured again in 1508 and put to death, marking the last time the Chagatayids were ejected from Transoxania. In 1514, Mansur Khan 's brother Sultan Said Khan captured Kashgar, Yarkand , and Khotan from Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat , who had ruled in Mahmud's absence, and forced him to flee to Ladakh . This marked the final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar, and Mansur in Turpan, otherwise known as Uyghuristan . In 1529, Said attacked Badakhshan , and in 1531, he invaded Ladakh. During
10670-462: Was captured but released soon after. He died of paralysis in Aksu a year later. His brother Mansur Khan succeeded him. His reign began with difficulties with the powerful Dughlat of Kashgar, Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat , plundering the cities of Kucha and Aksu. In 1514, Mansur's brother Sultan Said Khan captured Kashgar, Yarkand , and Khotan from Abu Bakr and forced him to flee to Ladakh . This marked
10780-449: Was colluding with the Japanese. Ma Zhongying publicly declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang at Nanjing. Ma himself was given permission by the Kuomintang to invade Xinjiang. The explicitly Islamic East Turkestan Republic forcibly ejected the Swedish missionaries and was openly hostile to Christianity while espousing a Muslim Turkic ideology. The Bughras implemented Shariah law and ejected
10890-546: Was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending
11000-577: Was defeated both times in 1479 and 1480, after which Abu Bakr also seized Kashgar. In the west, Yunus captured Hami from Kara Del , which was then a tributary of the Ming dynasty . A Ming army evicted the Moghuls from the city but failed to catch them, and they soon returned to Hami afterwards. Yunus also took advantage of political infighting in the west to vassalize Umar Shaikh Mirza II 's realm in Fergana . Yunus moved to Tashkent in 1484 and settled down, giving up
11110-626: Was driven out of Hami. In 1493, Ahmad captured Kara Del's ruler Šamba and held him prisoner. Šamba received support from the Ming dynasty , which closed its borders to Turpan and expelled its traders from their markets, which eventually forced Ahmad to give up his ambitions in Hami due to unrest in his realm. In 1499 Ahmad retook Kashgar and Yengisar from Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat . Around 1500, Muhammad Shaybani attacked Ahmad's brother Mahmud Khan , who appealed to Ahmad for help. Muhammad defeated both Ahmad and Mahmud, seizing Tashkent and Sairam . Ahmad
11220-479: Was easily taken, as were other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces retreated to Urumqi. Ground was alternately gained and lost by both sides. During this time Ma's forces became notorious for their cruelty to both Turkic and Chinese inhabitants, destroying the economy and engaging in wholesale looting and burning of villages. Once seen as a liberator by the Turkic population, which had suffered greatly under Jin Shuren, many Turkic inhabitants of
11330-685: Was enthroned in 1335. One of his sons was baptized. Pope Benedict XII appointed the Franciscan bishop Richard of Burgundy to Almalik in 1339. But during the reign of 'Ali-Sultan , Islam fully absorbed the Chagatai Mongols and 'Ali persecuted non-Muslim religions. He is the one who ordered the extermination of the Franciscan congregation at Almaliq, and the killing of six Franciscan monks in 1339 (including bishop Richard of Burgundy, Pascal of Spain, Raymond of Provence and three others), as depicted in
11440-567: Was established at Hami under the proud title of King of the Gobi. Jin Shuren, pressed for funding and swamped with Han refugees fleeing the warlordism elsewhere , decided to annex the Khanate to seize its revenues and use its lands to take in refugees. The newly subjected Kumulliks' land was expropriated by the Provincial government and given to Han Chinese settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931, and many Han Chinese were massacred by
11550-643: Was officially appointed commanding officer of the New 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed. Jin bought two biplanes from the Soviet Union in September 1931 at 40,000 Mexican silver dollars each. They were equipped with machine guns and bombs and flown by Russian pilots. He signed
11660-524: Was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the Qing dynasty , Khanate of Bukhara , and the Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign
11770-555: Was subject to an assassination attempt which forced him to seek medical care in the Soviet Union. Conflict began brewing when Liu Bin, unaware of Muslim sensitivities, put up a picture of republican China's founder Sun Yat-sen in the Id-gar mosque of Old Kashgar, while pro-Soviet Kyrgyz under Uyghur communist Qadir Beg took over local policing. They implemented a reformed education curriculum based on importing teachers from Soviet Central Asia. Local Uyghurs began disenchanted, seeing these moves as
11880-486: Was succeeded by his nephew Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) in 1631. Pulat was overthrown by Abdallah (Moghul Khan) in 1636. Abdallah stabilized the court and exiled a number of old nobles to India . He repelled Oirat inroads in the Khotan and Aksu regions, and entered a tributary relationship with the Qing dynasty in 1655. Friendly relations were also established with Bukhara and the Mughal Empire . In 1667, Abdallah's son Yulbars Khan removed his father from power. From
11990-564: Was taken to Turpan , where he was proclaimed khan. Four years later, he was put to death by his followers and brought to Yunus. Yunus thus became the sole ruler of Moghulistan in 1472. Yunus' reign began with a raid by the Oirats under Esen Taishi's son Amasanj, who forced Yunus to flee to the Syr Darya. Yunus returned after the Oirats left with their pillage. In 1465, Yunus faced a rebellion by Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat , who seized Yarkand and Khotan . Yunus attempted twice to remove to Abu Bakr but
12100-604: Was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October in a battle in which Jin's force included 250 White Russian troops whom he had recruited from the Ili valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War ), Ma withdrew his forces to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French , whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave
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