Misplaced Pages

#988011

93-783: Kouroussa represented the southern end of the Manden : the Mandé heartland of the Mali Empire . Kouroussa's position as a river port has made it a historic center for regional trade, much like its larger neighbor Kankan . Much of the Jallonke population of the area migrated from the west when the Fula people conquered the Fouta Djallon in the 13th - 16th centuries. With the collapse of the empire, southern Manden confederations and states continued to exist, including in

186-500: A linguistic grouping of those African nations who speak Mande languages . They are not a coherent ethnic or cultural group. The various Mandé-speaking nations are concentrated in the western regions of West Africa . The Mandinka or Malinke, a western Mandé nation, are credited with the founding one of the largest West African empires . Other large Mandé-speaking nations include the Soninke and Susu , as well as smaller ones such as

279-652: A feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt. As part a broader trend of iron metallurgy in the West African Sahel in 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai. The iron materials found are evidence of metalworking at Dhar Tagant. In

372-630: A formal neutrality policy in regard to religion, the French colonial administration began to regulate Islamic education in the early 1900s. In addition, fear of a pan-Islamism political rise throughout North Africa and the Sahel led the French to adopt policies that aimed to prevent the spread of Islam beyond where it already existed and to prevent Muslim leaders from governing non-Muslim communities. Indigenous religions and Christianity existed under less formal policies, and French efforts often used these to balance

465-535: A four-tiered hierarchal social structure, farming of cereals , metallurgy , numerous funerary tombs, and a rock art tradition. At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid the Neolithic . Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition, and

558-400: A growing independence movement. The French slavery policy for much of the 19th century was inconsistent and context-dependent. Slavery had been formally outlawed in 1848, but enforcement was often non-existent. Slaves were freed in directly administered colonies in 1883, and active interdiction of slave caravans began in the 1890s. This was dependent on the military situation, however; slavery

651-423: A higher status than both their nomadic and more settled compatriots. Many Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures traditionally have castes of crafts people (including as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, and woodworkers/woodcarvers) and bards (the latter being known in several European languages as griots ). These craft and bardic castes are collectively called " nyamakala " among peoples of Manding branch of

744-554: A military project led by French troops, but in the mid-1890s it came under civilian administration. A number of administrative reorganizations in the early 1900s brought increasing French administration over issues like agriculture, religion, and slavery. Following World War II, the African Democratic Rally (RDA) under Modibo Keïta became the most significant political force pushing for independence. French Sudan initially retained close connections with France and joined in

837-503: A monument to René-Auguste Caillié in Kouroussa, erected by the French. In 2001, Kouroussa was one of several places which was particularly hard hit by flooding, and became a center for thousands of internally displaced people from the surrounding area. In 2005, Kouroussa was rocked by major protests against the government, particularly aimed at Kouroussa Prefect Charles Andre Haba who was accused of embezzling local mining revenue. The town

930-544: A number of well known drum masters—including Famoudou Konate , Daouda Kourouma, and Sékou Konaté—coming from the town. Djembé groups in Kouroussa are known for the inclusion of the bass dununba drum and the long kenken bell. With its position near the upstream limit of navigation on the Niger River, Kouroussa is an important center of transport and trade. The Guinea Railway crosses the Niger River at this town, where there

1023-499: A post at Kouroussa, as it lay along the main line for French fighting with the forces of Samori to the south. From here French forces raided areas controlled by Samori, even launching raids from here into the British territory of Sierra Leone . By 1895, even while fighting with Samori continued, the French had set up a school to train local workers to identify, collect, and prepare wild rubber for French industrial purposes. Kouroussa became

SECTION 10

#1732858694989

1116-530: A regional center of rubber requisitions (often instituted as a tax in labour), which peaked in the second decade of the 20th century. Kouroussa was administered as part of the Siguiri Cercle , which also included Kankan. The French, after annexing the Futa Jallon in the 1890s, added the region to the colony of French Upper Guinea , later a part of French West Africa , until Guinea's independence in 1959. During

1209-450: A series of government granted Gold mining concessions near the town. The Kouroussa area also has a long history as a center of small scale gold mining, which continues in so called "Artisanal Mining" Recent criticism has surfaced around the working conditions, pay, and the widespread use of child labour in these small gold mines, and the method which middlemen, many based in Kouroussa, purchase and transport gold. Gold collected in Kouroussa

1302-653: A short-lived federation with Senegal in 1959, but ties to both countries quickly weakened. In 1960, the French Sudan formally became the Republic of Mali and began to distance itself further from Senegal and France. French Sudan was formed as a set of military outposts as an extension of the French colony in Senegal . Though the area offered France little economic or strategic gain, the military effectively advocated greater conquest in

1395-720: A similar culture with Mandé-speaking peoples. After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed. Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not. As a result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara , Central Saharan hunter-gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as

1488-512: A slave exodus began in Banamba that preceded by six months a formal French decree ending slavery throughout French West Africa. With legal protection, almost a million slaves followed this example by moving away from their masters and settling elsewhere. The French supported these efforts by creating settlements around the Niger River and digging wells for communities elsewhere so they could farm away from their former masters. This process affected

1581-570: Is a word used by the Manding, a Mandé-speaking people (e.g., Mandinka), originally to describe the tensions between half-brothers with the same father and different mothers. The concept of fadenya has been stretched and is often used to describe the political and social dynamism of the Mandé world. Fadenya is often discussed in contrast to badenya , or mother-childness. Amongst the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures, history

1674-493: Is also a river port. The town also lies at a junction in Guinea's N1 highway , which is a major transport route between Conakry , Kankan , and (via the N7 and N32) neighboring Mali . The metre gauge Niger – Conakry rail line runs 588 km to the capital of Guinea, with a branch of 74 kilometers running from Kouroussa to Kankan. It was built by the French, using African labor, in

1767-548: Is arguably the most complex chordophone of Africa. The N'goni is the ancestor of the modern banjo , and is also played by jelis. Griots are professional bards in northern West Africa, keepers of their great oral epic traditions and history. They are trusted and powerful advisors of Mandinka leaders. Among the most celebrated of these today are Toumani Diabate , Mamadou Diabate , and Kandia Kouyaté . French Sudan French Sudan ( French : Soudan français ; Arabic : السودان الفرنسي as-Sūdān al-Faransī )

1860-615: Is believed to have been abandoned and moved to its current location due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné . Towns similar to Djenné-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia , also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC. Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with

1953-492: Is in part about his youth in the town. Kouroussa and surrounding towns maintain the pre-colonial Mande ceremonial kingship of Hamana, with the most recent holder of the office King of Kouroussa King Sayon Keita I. Kouroussa is about 50 km SW of the Mandingo cultural site Gberedou/Hamana . Hamana-Malinke are especially known for their unique musical traditions, especially their polyphonic Djembé drumming traditions, with

SECTION 20

#1732858694989

2046-406: Is intended for teaching or rehearsing, and the other is more official, intended to convey the important information to a large audience. Part of the teaching performance involves the presentation of gifts from clans involved in the epic. The official version can use a musical instrument; it does not allow audience interruptions. Different Mandé clans play different instruments in their performances of

2139-454: Is passed orally, one famous instance being the Epic of Sundiata of the Mandinka. Among the Mandinka, and some closely related groups, teaching centers known as kumayoro teach the oral histories and techniques under keepers of tradition known as nyamankala . These nyamankala form an important part of Mandinka culture due to their role in preserving oral tradition. Kela school, the most notable,

2232-571: Is sold on—with almost no regulation or oversight—to larger merchant houses in Bamako , Conakry , and eventually to smelters in Europe. Large scale Titanium mining has also been proposed in the Kouroussa area, with both Dredging of Heavy Mineral Sands from rivers and streams and dry pit mines proposed as of 2007. 10°39′N 09°53′W  /  10.650°N 9.883°W  / 10.650; -9.883 Mand%C3%A9 peoples The Mandé peoples are

2325-471: Is vital in perpetuating oral tradition. Because of their strong work, the versions of the Sundiata epic tend to be fairly similar. The Kela version is considered the official one, and the epic is performed every seven years. The Kela version includes a written document called a tariku . This intersection of written and oral history is unique to Mandinka culture. The epic is typically performed in two ways: one

2418-528: The République soudanaise  [ fr ] declared itself a republic with internal autonomy on 24 November 1958. The Sudanese Republic, as the area was now called, was the second colony after Madagascar to join the French Community , which provided it internal autonomy while linking its currency, foreign policy and defense with France. In early January 1959, there were plans for a federation linking

2511-569: The Ligbi , Vai , and Bissa . Mandé-speaking peoples inhabit various environments, from coastal rainforests to the sparse Sahel , and have a wide range of cuisines, cultures, and beliefs. After migrating from the Central Sahara , Mandé-speaking peoples established Tichitt culture in the Western Saharan region of Mauritania , which had Dhar Tichitt as its primary regional center and possibly

2604-654: The Malian Lakes Region as its secondary regional center. Subsequently, toward the end of the Mauritanian Tichitt culture, Mandé-speaking peoples began to spread and established Méma , Macina , Dia Shoma , and Jenne Jeno in the Middle Niger region as well as the Ghana Empire . Today, Mandé-speaking peoples are predominantly Muslim and follow a caste system. Islam has played a central role in identifying

2697-708: The Malian Lakes Region , which includes Tondidarou , may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition. The urban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale, complexly organized society in West Africa , and an early civilization of the Sahara , which may have served as the segue for state formation in West Africa. As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma. Farming of crops (e.g., millet ) may have been

2790-674: The Mandinka and Soninke (though often mixed with indigenous beliefs), and usually observe ritual washing and the daily prayers of Islam. Their women wear veils . The Mandinka in particular practice the social concept of sanankuya or "joking relationship" among clans. Amongst the Mende , Kpelle , Gbandi and Loma Mandé-speaking ethnic groups of Sierra Leone and Liberia, there exists secret fraternal orders and sororities, known as Poro and Sande , or Bundu , respectively based on ancient traditions believed to have emerged about 1000 CE. These govern

2883-674: The Muslim religion. Kouroussa and the surrounding region is the centre of the Hamana-Malinke Mande sub-group -- "Hamana" being the name for the region, while the Malinke are the major Mande speaking ethnic group of the upper Niger valley. There are also sizable minority communities of Fula and Dyula , the latter traditionally forming trade communities in towns like Kouroussa. The writer and intellectual Camara Laye (1928–80) grew up in Kouroussa, and his memoir, L'Enfant noir ( The Black Child ),

Kouroussa - Misplaced Pages Continue

2976-517: The Niger River . This was followed with the establishment of a number of French forts and political alliances with specific leaders in the region in the early 1880s. The administrative structure of the area was still largely under control of the French Governor of Senegal, and the most significant colonization were simply the military forts and outposts, including the important one established at Kayes in 1881 by Gustave Borgnis-Desbordes . Though

3069-563: The Office du Niger ). Despite these efforts, a significant cash crop economy did not develop in the French Sudan. Like much of the rest of French West Africa, the colony had a number of policies regarding Islam and the Muslim communities. The Arabic language and Islamic law were preferred in the colony by the French in the establishment of colonial government, largely because both were codified, and thus easy to standardize. Though they maintained

3162-691: The University of Timbuktu . In a number of generations, Mali was eclipsed by the Songhai empire of Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great). Following the fall of the great Empires of the Northern Mandé-speaking people (Mandinka and Soninke ethnic groups), the presence of other Mandé-speaking people came about. These were the Mane , Southern Mandé speakers ( Mende , Gbandi , Kpelle , Loma ethnic groups) who invaded

3255-537: The self-determination of their territories. In the first elections held in French Sudan in 1957, the African Democratic Rally ( Rassemblement Démocratique Africain , commonly known as the RDA) won the elections in French Sudan, as well as winning majorities in neighboring Ivory Coast, French Guinea, and the Upper Volta. Following the French constitutional referendum of 1958 , which received an overwhelming majority in support,

3348-466: The "richest king in the world because of his gold." In the 11th century, the kingdom began to weaken and decline for numerous reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly, a devastating drought damaged the cattle and cultivation industries, the clans were fractured, and the vassal states were rebelling. According to Arab tradition, Almoravid Muslims came from the North and invaded Ghana. The western Sanhaja

3441-623: The French administration actively worked to end slave raiding and the most clear manifestations of the slave trade, greatly reducing those means of acquiring slaves. However, for many decades after the 1905 abolition of slavery, the practice continued in much of French Sudan. Following the passage of the Loi Cadre by the French National Assembly in 1956, many of the colonies in French West African began to hold elections to increase

3534-439: The French administration decided to replace Archinard's control over the area with a civilian governor, Louis Albert Grodet . The region was governed under a number of different names between 1880 and 1960. The area was Upper River from 1880 until 18 August 1890, when it was renamed French Sudan , with its capital at Kayes . On 10 October 1899, French Sudan was divided, with the southern cercles joining coastal colonies, and

3627-502: The French alike, while the Futa Jallon state raided the area periodically. The French officer Aimé Olivier , attempting to convince the Imamate of Futa Jallon to sign a protectorate, passed through Kouroussa in the 1880s, and at the beginning of the 1890s, French military under Louis Archinard established garrison posts at Kankan and Kouroussa, commanded from a larger post just downstream at Siguiri . In 1893–1894, Commandant Briquelot set up

3720-815: The Islamization of non-Mandé Gur groups at the edge of the Sahel in West Africa. Much Mandé art is in the form of jewelry and carvings . The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mendé are probably the best-known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mandé also produce beautifully woven fabrics which are popular throughout western Africa. They also create gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. The Bambara people and related groups also traditionally produce wooden sculpture. And sculpture in wood, metal, and terra-cotta, have been found, associated with ancient peoples related to

3813-430: The Manding rock art may relate to circumcision rituals for initiates. During the 15th century CE, migrations from the northern area of Guinea and southern area of Mali may have resulted in the creation of Manding rock art in the northern area of Mali (e.g., Yobri, Nabruk), southeastern area of Burkina Faso (e.g., Takoutala, Sourkoundingueye), and Dogon country . French colonisation of West Africa greatly affected

Kouroussa - Misplaced Pages Continue

3906-512: The Mandé-speaking ethnic groups in the westernmost part of West Africa have been predominantly Muslim since the 13th century. Others, such as the Bambara , a Mandinka group, converted to Islam as late as the 19th century with some retaining their traditional beliefs. Muslim Mandinka also hold traditional beliefs, such as in the rituals of initiation groups like Chiwara , and Dwo , and beliefs in

3999-517: The Mandé-speaking family ( Mandinka people ), and "Nyaxamalo" among the Soninke people , Mandé-influenced caste systems, and elements thereof, sometimes spread, due to Mande influences, to non-Mandé-speaking ethnic groups (in and near regions where Mande cultures settled) and were adopted by certain non-Mande peoples of Senegal, parts of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, and elsewhere the Western Sudan and Western Sahel regions of West Africa. Among

4092-627: The Mandé-speaking people who live in the Sahel regions. Influences from Mandé-speaking people have historically spread far beyond immediate areas to other neighboring Muslim West African groups who inhabited the Sahel and Savanna . The Mandé people conducted increased trade along the Niger River or overland, and achieved military conquest with the expansion of the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire , Kaabu and Wassoulou states. The non-Mandé-speaking Fula , Songhai , Wolof , Hausa , and Voltaic peoples share

4185-508: The Mandé-speaking peoples concerning conflict with other African ethnic groups has been exacerbated since the start of the 20th century. Because of desertification , they have been forced steadily southward in search of work and other resources. Frequently, the competition has resulted in fighting between them and other indigenous populations along the coast. Mandé-speaking ethnic groups typically have patrilineal kinship system and patriarchal society. Several Mandé tribes practice Islam, like

4278-435: The Niger River in central Mali built by Soninke-related peoples, is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses, some dating to the first millennium and early second millennium AD. It is believed that these statuettes served a ritual function and hypothesized that some are the representations of household or ancestral spirits, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in

4371-714: The Saharan and Sahelian regions. The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated hierarchies found in African settlements, such as Dhar Tichitt . After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto- Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara. The Tichitt Tradition of southeastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. Tichitt culture at Dhar Néma , Dhar Tagant , Dhar Tichitt , and Dhar Walata included

4464-503: The Soninke community. Leather goods, ivory, salt, gold, and copper were also sold in exchange for various finished goods. By the 10th century, Ghana was an immensely rich and prosperous empire, controlling an area the size of Texas , stretching across Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. When visiting the capital city of Kumbi Saleh in 950 AD, Arab traveler Ibn Hawqal described the Ghanaian ruler as

4557-434: The Soninke in Mali. The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed to be heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mandé hunters often wear a single bell, which can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, often wear multiple bells, representative of concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together. Djenné-Djenno , an ancient city on

4650-534: The Sudanese Republic with Senegal, Dahomey, and the Upper Volta in a federation of autonomous states. By April, however, neither Dahomey's nor Upper Volta's legislatures had ratified the federation, and so the Mali Federation was formed with only the Sudanese Republic and Senegal. In 1959, Modibo Keïta 's RDA party won all 70 seats in the legislative elections in the Sudanese Republic and joined forces with

4743-535: The Susu, another Mande people, in the north-west of what is now Sierra Leone . The Susu had similar weapons, military organization and tactics. Painted rock art from Manding peoples are found largely in Mali , where Malinke and Bambara peoples reside. The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g., saurian ) and human artforms. Some of

SECTION 50

#1732858694989

4836-412: The Tichitt Tradition spread to the Middle Niger region of Mali (e.g., at Méma , Macina , Dia Shoma , and Jenne Jeno ), where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among rammed earth architecture and iron metallurgy (which developed after 900 BCE). Thereafter, the Ghana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE. The civilization of Djenné-Djenno

4929-833: The area around Kouroussa. In the 17th century the Fama Da Monzon Diarra of the Bambara Empire made Kouroussa the southern reach of his state. By the 18th century the Fula Muslim Imamate of Futa Jallon led by the Alamay of Timbo provided pressure from the south and west, while the growing Kong state (in modern Côte d'Ivoire ) became powerful to the south and east. The Mandé state around Kouroussa, called in some periods Hamana and in others Koumara , continued as an important trade center and small regional power, squeezed between these forces. The first known European visitor to

5022-408: The area as late as the 20th century. The best known type of traditional music amongst the Mandé-speaking people is played on the kora , a stringed instrument with 21 or more strings mainly associated by the Mandinka people . It is performed by families of musicians known in Mandinka as Jeliw (sing. Jeli ), or in French as griots . The kora is a unique harp-lute with a notched wooden bridge. It

5115-469: The civilian administration of the French governor of Senegal formally ruled the area, military officers in the region largely bypassed these leaders and answered directly to commanding officers in Paris. Desbordes gradually took over more territory, often using inter-ethnic rivalries and political tension among leaders in the area to appoint French-supportive leaders. French civilian administrators struggled with

5208-726: The collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust was taken by the Ghana empire . The trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa Before the Almoravids, the Islamic influence was gradual and did not involve any form of military takeover. In any event, following their subsequent withdrawal, new gold fields were mined further south and new trade routes were opening further east. Just as it appeared that Ghana would reemerge, it became

5301-406: The colonial authority. Unable to attract enough volunteers, the colonial authorities began to try forced resettlement to the cotton project. The Office du Niger was founded in 1926 as the main organization facilitating planned, irrigated agricultural projects. Farmers resisted forced resettlement and petitioned for permanent land rights to the irrigated land (which was usually held as property of

5394-524: The colonial period the town was made a main trans-shipment point for commodities coming from French Sudan (today's Mali) due to the construction of the Guinea-Niger railway, which met the river at Kouroussa in 1910, and from which rainy season ship transport could reach Bamako . As well as a collection center for wild rubber, the French encouraged the collection gold sifted from streams and dug by local small scale mines. The French also attempted to promote local farming of groundnuts and cotton . There remains

5487-447: The colony similarly changed a number of times. Originally, and for the initial period, the colony vacillated between military administration and civilian administration from Senegal. In 1893, French Sudan formally came under civilian administration, which lasted until 1899. At that point, a reorganization of the colony split 11 southern provinces to other French colonies like French Guinea , the Ivory Coast and Dahomey . The area that

5580-506: The construction of a large irrigation system along the Niger River . Starting in 1921, significant irrigation projects around Koulikoro and later at Baguinéda-Camp and the Ségou Cercle began to bring water. The French believed this project could rival the major cotton growing centers of Egypt and the United States . Unlike other agricultural projects in French West Africa, the French Sudan irrigation project initially relied on families voluntarily resettling along lines established by

5673-403: The dominant party in Senegal, headed by Léopold Sédar Senghor . The federation achieved independence on 20 June 1960 within the French Community; however, divisions between Senghor and Keïta on the governance of the federation resulted in its dissolution on 20 August 1960. The area of French Sudan formally proclaimed itself the Republic of Mali and, with increasing radicalization of Keita, left

SECTION 60

#1732858694989

5766-658: The epic. The Kandasi also started a school for oral history. Mandé literature includes the Epic of Sundiata , an epic poem of the Manding peoples (a branch of Mande family) recounting the rise of Sundiata Keita , the founder of the Mali Empire . Ethnomusicologist Eric Charry notes that these tales "form a vast body of oral and written literature" ranging from Ibn Khaldun 's 14th-century Arabic -language account to French colonial anthologies collecting local oral histories to modern recordings, transcriptions, translations, and performance. Tarikh al-Fattash and Tarikh al-Sudan are two important Timbuktu chronicles. By

5859-472: The first two decades of the 20th century. The Savanna climate in the region around Kouroussa support a wide range of subsistence and cash crop farming, producing rice, groundnuts , onions and millet for sale, as well as supporting larger scale cotton farming and cattle ranching by both locals and semi-nomadic Fula people whose largest local center is in the nearby Fouta Djallon highlands. Major mining companies are engaged in ongoing exploration drilling in

5952-480: The house and animals. Though slavery persisted, some aspects of the relationship changed with the French administration. Escaped slaves could find official protection by French authorities in the cities for a limited time. Slaves could sometimes renegotiate the terms of their servitude in the changed political situation. Some were willing to agree to remain in servitude if they received control over their family life and some land to pass to their children. In addition,

6045-451: The inhabitants are called Dhialonkés [ Dialonké ], and are chiefly idolaters. They do not travel, but occupy themselves peaceably in the cultivation of their little fields, which are fertilised by the inundations of the river. By the arrival of Europeans, Kouroussa was a major trade stop between the Niger River valley and the coast, with the so-called " Leprince " overland route running from the coast via Kindia , Timbo , and Kouroussa. In

6138-603: The internal order of their society, with important rites of passage and entry into the gender societies as boys and girls come of age in puberty. Amongst specific Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka , Soninke and Susu , there traditionally exists a caste-based system. Amongst these Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' societies are hierarchies or "caste"-based systems, with nobility and vassals. There were also serfs ( Jonw / Jong(o) ), often prisoners or captives taken in warfare, and usually from competitors of their territory. The descendants of former kings and generals had

6231-419: The late 1990s, there were reportedly 64 published versions of the Epic of Sunjata. Although traditionally attributed to Mahmud Kati , Tarikh al-Fattash was written by at least three different authors. Among the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka , Soninke and Susu , griots are a group, traditionally a specialized caste who are bards , storytellers, and oral historians . Many of

6324-516: The late 19th century French forces appeared in the region just to the north, establishing bases at Kayes , Kita, Mali , Bafoulabé and eventually at Bamako . Countering the French expansion was the Fula Jihad state of which exploded out of neighboring Dinguiray to conquer both the Mandé states surrounding Kouroussa to the northwest and the Bambara to the northeast. To the south, the Wassoulou conquest state of Samori Ture appeared, sending his well armed forces against Kouroussa, its neighbors, and

6417-429: The late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of an oval-shaped low shaft iron furnace, one of 16 located on elevated ground. Iron metallurgy may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE. At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, copper was also utilized. After its decline in Mauritania,

6510-402: The leadership of Dinga Cisse . The nation comprised a confederation of three independent, freely allied, states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. Located midway between the desert, the main source of salt, and the gold fields of the upper Senegal River to the south, the confederation had a good location to take advantage of trade with the surrounding cities. They traded with

6603-457: The life of Mandé-speaking people. Constant wars with the French cost the lives of thousands of their soldiers. They relied increasingly on the Atlantic slave trade for revenues. The later creation of colonial boundaries by European powers divided the population. The Mandé-speaking people are still active in West African politics; Many individuals from Mandé-speaking ethnic groups have been elected as presidents in several states. Existence amongst

6696-432: The migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa. In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the Pastoral Period of the Sahara . Saharan pastoral culture was intricate, as evidenced by fields of tumuli , lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout

6789-429: The military leaders, and the two forces went through a number of leadership changes over the territory, until Louis Archinard was appointed military governor in 1892. Archinard led military campaigns against Samori Ture , Ahmadu Tall , and other resistant leaders in the region, with varying success. Archinard's campaigns were often executed through direct military control, without civilian oversight. As costs increased,

6882-527: The non-Mande Wolof people , craft and bardic castes were collectively termed "nyeno". With time, in many cases, status differences have eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the groups. Although the Mandé arrived in many of their present locations as raiders or traders, they gradually adapted to their regions. In the 21st century, most work either as settled agriculturalists or nomadic fishermen. Some are skilled as blacksmiths , cattle herders, and griots or bards. Fadenya or “father-childness”

6975-556: The north by a coastal route leading to Morocco via Sijilmasa . Ghanaian society included large pastoral and agricultural communities. Its commercial class was the most prosperous. The Soninke merchants of Ghana came to dominate the trade, having had Saharan trade routes connecting their great cities of the Sahara and to the northern coast of Africa. They enslaved neighboring Africans, either to sell them or to use them for domestic purposes; those who were not sold were usually assimilated into

7068-550: The oldest ceramics found in Djenné-Djenno , which have been dated to 250 BCE. The egalitarian civilization of Djenné-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people , which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. Since around 1500 BCE, a number of clans of proto- Soninke descent, one of the oldest branches of Mandé-speaking peoples, came together under

7161-518: The power of nyama (a spiritual power existing in nature). Many smaller Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Bobo , retain pre-Islamic belief systems in their entirety. Many Mandé-speaking groups in Sierra Leone and Liberia were also, for the most part, not islamized. According to oral histories, Mandé-speaking people, in particular the Soninke ethnic group, contributed through trade and settlement to

7254-561: The rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams." Consequently, the names of Mali and Timbuktu were shown on the 14th-century world map. In the 12th century CE, the University of Sankore , which began as the Mosque of Sankore , served as an organization of higher learning in Timbuktu . The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya , and the Mosque of Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as

7347-492: The region. This was partly due to a fascination with the great empires, such as the Mali Empire and the Songhay Empire that rose to prominence in the area, and partly due to the promotional opportunities that military conquest offered for French military personnel. French conquest began in 1879, when Joseph Gallieni was dispatched to the area to establish a fort and survey the land for a railroad from Dakar in Senegal to

7440-412: The rest split into two administrative areas called Middle Niger and Upper Senegal . In 1902, the region again was organized as a unified colony under the name Senegambia and Niger ( Sénégambie et Niger ). The name changed again in 1904 to Upper Senegal and Niger ( Haut Sénégal et Niger ). Finally, in 1921, the name changed back to French Sudan ( Soudan Français ). Borders and administration of

7533-450: The southern and western parts of present-day Mali most significantly, but in the northern and eastern parts of the colony large numbers of slaves remained in servitude to their masters. According to rough estimates, throughout the area of present-day Mali, about one-third of former slaves moved away from the slavery relationship, while two-thirds remained with their masters. In the 1920s, most Tuareg households still had slaves who tended to

7626-520: The spread of Islam in the region. In the 1940s, a religious movement called Allah Koura began in the San Cercle based upon the visions of a single person . Local administrators allowed the Allah Koura movement to spread and practice, seeing it as a potential limiting influence on the spread of Islam farther south. In the late 1950s, Muslim protests and riots throughout the colony further contributed to

7719-473: The target of attacks by the Susu people who were Mandinka (another Mandé-speaking people) and their leader Sumanguru. From this conflict in 1235, the Malinké (also known as Mandinka people ) emerged under a new dynamic ruler, Sundiata Kéita. By the mid-13th century, the once great empire of Ghana had utterly disintegrated. It soon became eclipsed by the Mali Empire of Sundiata. The most renowned Emperor of Mali

7812-465: The town was the French explorer René Caillié , who passed through the area in June 1827 on his journey to Djenné and Timbuktu . In his book Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo published in 1830, he wrote: Courouassa [Kouroussa] is a neat village, surrounded by a mud wall, from ten to twelve feet high and from eight to ten inches thick. It contains between four and five hundred inhabitants. ...

7905-508: The western coast of Africa from the east during the first half of the 16th century. Their origin was apparent in their dress and weapons (which were observed at the time by Europeans), their language, as well as in Mane tradition, recorded about 1625. The Mane advanced parallel to the coastline of modern Liberia , fighting in turn with each tribal group that they came across. They were almost invariably successful. They did not slow until encountering

7998-808: Was Sundiata's grandson, Mansa Musa (1307–1332), also known as “Kan Kan Mussa" or "The Lion of Mali". His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 quite literally put Mali on the European map. He took 60,000 porters with him, each carrying 3 kg of pure gold (180 tons in total, according to the UNESCO General History of Africa ). He had so much gold that when he stopped in Egypt , the Egyptian currency lost some of its value. According to Cairo-born historian al-Maqurizi, "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and ' Ethiopian ' slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that

8091-482: Was a French colonial territory in the Federation of French West Africa from around 1880 until 1959, when it joined the Mali Federation , and then in 1960, when it became the independent state of Mali . The colony was formally called French Sudan from 1890 until 1899 and then again from 1921 until 1958, and had a variety of different names over the course of its existence. The colony was initially established largely as

8184-474: Was converted to Islam sometime in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century. With the zeal of converts, they launched several campaigns against the " Sudanese ", idolatrous Black peoples of West Africa and the Sahel. Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected or captured the citadel of Awdaghust , a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route. After

8277-497: Was located in the Niger River valley in Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centres and the best-known archaeological sites in Sub-Saharan Africa . The site is located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the modern town of Djenné and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres). The city

8370-418: Was not interfered with in allied areas, but anti-French chiefs saw their runaway slaves welcomed and settled in villages de liberte. These functioned as labor reserves for the French, however, and many former slaves left them quickly. In 1903, the government instructed French administrators not to use slave as an administrative category anymore and to not help masters recapture runaways. In March 1905,

8463-486: Was not reorganized was governed in two administrations linked to other French colonies. Following this, the territory of the colony was reestablished in 1902. Though the borders shifted slightly, there was little territorial change until 1933. At that point, the colony of the French Upper Volta ( Haute-Volta , modern Burkina Faso ) dissolved, and the northern territory was added to French Sudan. In 1947, Upper Volta

8556-570: Was reestablished, and the French Sudan borders became those that eventually became the borders of Mali. Kayes was the original capital city from the 1890s until 1908 when the capital moved to Bamako , where it remains. The colony supported mostly rain-fed agriculture, with limited irrigation for its first 30 years. The only cash crops were nuts gathered close to the railroad between Kayes and Bamako. However, following successful tests of growing Egyptian cotton in West Africa during World War I, Émile Bélime  [ fr ] began to campaign for

8649-547: Was reported at the time to be a center of the opposition Rally of the Guinean People (RPG) With an estimated population of just over 10,000, Kouroussa functions more as a services and transport center for the surrounding agricultural region than as a metropolitan center in its own right. The majority of the surrounding population comes from the Malinke and Djallonke ethnic groups, who speak related Mande languages and follow

#988011