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129-480: Kielce has a history back over 900 years, and the exact date that it was founded remains unknown. Kielce was once an important centre of limestone mining, and the vicinity is famous for its natural resources like copper , lead, uranium, and iron, which, over the centuries, were exploited on a large scale. There are several fairs and exhibitions held in Kielce throughout the year. One of the city's most famous food products

258-455: A Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa . For comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa. Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in texture. However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that

387-457: A bloom of cyanobacteria or microalgae . However, stable isotope ratios in modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility. Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic , the last 540 million years of

516-519: A bell for the church and between 1637 and 1642 Mannerist palace was erected near the market place by Bishop Jakub Zadzik . It is one of the very few examples of French Renaissance architecture in Poland and the only example of a magnate's manor from the times of Vasa dynasty to survive World War II. During The Deluge the town was pillaged and burnt by the Swedes . Only the palace and the church survived, but

645-434: A carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape. Crystals of calcite, quartz , dolomite or barite may line small cavities ( vugs ) in the rock. Vugs are a form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by

774-612: A central quartz grain or carbonate mineral fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are larger than 2 mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape. Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an oolite or sometimes an oolitic limestone . Ooids form in high-energy environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition in strong currents. Oncoliths resemble ooids but show

903-449: A change in environment that increases the solubility of calcite. Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro "marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone. True marble is produced by recrystallization of limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process ( orogeny ). It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and

1032-723: A civilian airport located in nearby Masłów . It is not able to accommodate large passenger planes, because its runway is only 1,200 m. Its reconstruction is seen as not viable and in June 2006 the decision was made about the location of a new airport near the village of the Obice Morawica , able to handle regular airlines. At present, land has been purchased for the investment. The nearest international airports are located in Kraków-Balice , Warsaw-Okecie and Rzeszów-Jasionka . Official transport services were first established on 22 July 1951, when

1161-949: A composition reflecting the organisms that produced them and the environment in which they were produced. Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of articulate brachiopods , planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and coccoliths . High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms , and coralline algae . Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of molluscs , calcareous green algae , stromatoporoids , corals , and tube worms . The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments. For example, coral grains are more common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet water). Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than 2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or aragonite around

1290-412: A considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 km (0.62 miles), burial cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce stylolites. When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater infiltrating

1419-478: A dream he was attacked by a band of brigands in a forest. In the dream he saw a vision of Saint Adalbert who drew a winding line which turned into a stream. When Mieszko woke up, he found the Silnica River whose waters helped him regain strength. He also discovered white tusks of an animal, perhaps wild boar. Mieszko announced he would build a town and a church to St. Adalbert at that site. According to this legend,

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1548-483: A drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers. Impurities (such as clay , sand, organic remains, iron oxide , and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces. The makeup of

1677-621: A few million years, as this is the most stable form of calcium carbonate. Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic . Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This may indicate

1806-455: A few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can infiltrate over 100 km (60 miles) into sediments beneath the continental shelf. As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of

1935-522: A fortified palace (type known in Poland under Italian name palazzo in fortezza ). The complex combined Dutch style fortifications with a palace built to Italian design (inspirations of Palazzo Farnese in Caprarola are visible in the plan of the complex), mannerist Polish decoration and some other, presumably Dutch elements (octagonal tower resembling Binnenhof 's Torentje in The Hague , spires). The palace

2064-490: A high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 . Magnesian limestone is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite ( dolomitic limestone ), or for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of magnesium . Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms , though smaller amounts were formed in many other environments. Much dolomite

2193-435: A limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them. Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone , which

2322-466: A lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times. This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading , which removes magnesium from ocean water. The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas". Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms . Such environments form only about 5% of

2451-525: A lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals characteristic of marls . The Green River Formation is an example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds. Freshwater limestone is typically micritic. Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates. Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments . Calcite

2580-523: A mechanism for dolomitization, with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth". Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping). Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock

2709-442: A network of district roads, covering 109 streets with a total length of 114.9 km (71.4 mi) and a network of roads covering 446 streets with a total length of 220.9 km (137.3 mi). 57.5% of roads in the city has an improved hard surface, 8.4% of hard surface is not improved, while 34.1% are dirt. Rail transport came to Kielce in 1885, when the construction of the line linking Iwanogród ( Dęblin ) and Dąbrowa Górnicza

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2838-448: A plausible source of mud. Another possibility is direct precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as whitings occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of

2967-449: A radial rather than layered internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a normal marine environment. Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely produced by a variety of processes. Many are thought to be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be produced by endolithic (boring) algae or other microorganisms or through breakdown of mollusc shells. They are difficult to see in

3096-467: A relative lack of windchill, especially during sunny spells in early spring, as well as during severe winter cold snaps, which are typically dominated by calm, anticyclonic weather. Föhn winds from the Carpathian mountains do occasionally reach the city, resulting in unusually mild temperatures for a semi-continental location at this latitude, on rare occasions reaching approximately 15 °C (59 °F) in

3225-538: A richly decorated interior (Pińczów). The main decorating techniques were fresco (Tykocin, Pińczów), relief, and stucco (Zamość). The sculpture is mainly represented in sepulchral art and decorations of facades. Free standing sculptures are rare, though before the Deluge gardens of many residencies were adorned with sculptures (e.g., Villa Regia Palace's garden in Warsaw was embellished with sculptures by Adriaen de Vries). Also

3354-537: Is Kielecki Mayonnaise , a type of mayonnaise . The city and its surroundings are also known for their historic architecture, green spaces , and recreational areas like the Świętokrzyski National Park . In sports, the city is known as the home of the top-tier handball club, multiple Polish Champion, and one-time EHF Champions League winner Vive Kielce . According to a local legend, Mieszko II Lambert , son of Boleslaus I of Poland , during hunting, stopped to rest and refresh and fall asleep. During his sleep, he had

3483-608: Is Krzysztof Słoń (Law and Justice). There are honorary consulates of Finland , Germany and Hungary in Kielce. Limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate CaCO 3 ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime . It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of CaCO 3 . Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as

3612-560: Is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here, but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are deposited close to shore. The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which

3741-482: Is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of magnesium . Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant magnesium. Most limestone

3870-479: Is at its greatest. Maritime influences from the Atlantic typically bring cool, cloudy, damp and often foggy weather both in summer and in winter, whereas continental air masses often result in long periods of sunny and dry weather, hot in summer and on occasion, extremely cold in winter. The highest temperature recorded in Kielce since 1971 is 36.4 °C (98 °F) and the lowest is −33.9 °C (−29 °F), giving

3999-402: Is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years. However, the compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite. The aragonite needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within

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4128-474: Is clusters of peloids cemented together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity current . The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock. Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length

4257-416: Is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm . Although relatively soft, with

4386-420: Is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) in the water. This is summarized in the reaction: Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO 2 and precipitate CaCO 3 . Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO 3 , by several orders of magnitude for fresh water versus seawater. Near-surface water of

4515-545: Is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths , concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 mm (0.039 to 0.394 inches) in diameter found in some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments. Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil preservation. Silicification takes place through

4644-503: Is deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera . These organisms secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when they die. Other carbonate grains composing limestones are ooids , peloids , and limeclasts ( intraclasts and extraclasts  [ ca ] ). Skeletal grains have

4773-460: Is described as coquinite . Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such as foraminifera, while marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments. Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes. The solubility of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 )

4902-617: Is described as micrite . In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater, be secreted by algae, or be produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment. This is converted to calcite within a few million years of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar , with grains from 5 to 15 μm (0.20 to 0.59 mils) in diameter. Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm (0.79 to 3.94 mils), that are described as sparry calcite or sparite . Sparite

5031-462: Is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20 μm (0.79 mils) and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its characteristic crystal shapes. Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement

5160-958: Is frequent and many summers experience a few oppressively hot days of around 35 °C (95 °F), summer temperatures in the city are never extreme and have not exceeded 36.4 °C (98 °F) in recent decades. The transitional seasons of spring and autumn are highly unpredictable and experience large temperature swings with periods of fine weather and temperatures around 20 °C (68 °F) as early as March and late into October, alternating with much colder periods. Sharp nighttime frosts can occur as early as September and as late as May, though on calm, clear days, it often warms up rapidly to approximately 20 °C (68 °F), especially in April. Occasionally, significant, accumulating snow can occur in October and April, though mild weather rapidly returns. Sources: http://www.kzgw.gov.pl/ Archived 2010-03-27 at

5289-497: Is known as Poggio–Reale because it combined a square building with a central loggia with side towers, as in Villa Poggio Reale near Naples (1487–1489) according to conception of Baldassare Peruzzi and Sebastiano Serlio . Side towers become an obligatory element of every palace and funeral church chapels, modelled after mentioned Sigismund's Chapel, flourished all over Poland (Staszów, Włocławek). Another characteristics of

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5418-560: Is one of the first minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites. Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones. Organisms precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from

5547-473: Is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-grained quartz and clay minerals ) making up less than 5% to 10% of the composition. Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments (such as sponge spicules, diatoms , or radiolarians ). Fossils are also common in limestone. Limestone

5676-472: Is produced by decaying organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths. As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the lysocline , which occurs at the calcite compensation depth of 4,000 to 7,000 m (13,000 to 23,000 feet). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve, and

5805-601: Is rare, and significant snow accumulations typically occur gradually, a few centimeters at a time over a protracted cold spell. Summer is warm and lasts from June to early September, and is characterized by abundant sunshine, but also severe weather, particularly early in the season. Though temperatures average in the low-to-mid 20s (70s Fahrenheit), they are rather variable with frequent hot spells reaching approximately 30 °C (86 °F) interrupted by cold fronts, which frequently bring violent thunderstorms and several days of cool and sometimes chilly weather. Although hot weather

5934-514: Is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of limestone. Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is slightly soluble in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become karst landscapes. Most cave systems are found in limestone bedrock. Limestone has numerous uses: as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime used for cement (an essential component of concrete ), as aggregate for

6063-605: The Cold War , many Jewish historians theorized that the pogrom became the cause of outward Jewish emigration from Poland immediately following the opening of the borders in 1947. Nevertheless, the true reasons behind the dramatic increase of Jewish emigration from Poland were far more complex. The new government of the Communist Poland signed a repatriation agreement with the Soviet Union helping over 150,000 Holocaust survivors leave

6192-566: The Gestapo , stores and shops along the main thoroughfares liquidated, and ransom fines introduced. The forced labour and deportations to concentration camps culminated in mass extermination of Jews of Kielce during the Holocaust in occupied Poland . In April 1941, the Kielce Ghetto was formed, surrounded by high fences, barbed wire, and guards. The gentile Poles were ordered to vacate the area and

6321-486: The Holy Cross Mountains , however, the summer night time temperatures are somewhat cooler and the thunderstorms somewhat more frequent and severe than in surrounding areas of Poland. Both continental and maritime air masses can enter the area undergoing little modification, resulting in striking differences in the seasons from year to year, particularly in winter when the contrast between maritime and continental air

6450-493: The Jewish Ghetto Police was formed with 85 members and ordered to guard it. Meanwhile, expulsions elsewhere and deportations to Kielce continued until August 1942 at which time there were 27,000 prisoners crammed in the ghetto. Trains with Jewish families arrived from the entire Kielce Voivodeship , and also from Vienna , Poznań , and Łódź . The severe overcrowding, rampant hunger, and outbreaks of epidemic typhus took

6579-643: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (created in 1569) and a Golden Age of Poland. It was a time of economic prosperity due to grain trade . Grain was kept in richly embellished granaries (e.g. in Kazimierz Dolny ) and transported along the Vistula to the main port of Poland - Gdańsk , where it was sold to the Netherlands , England , France , Italy , and Spain (about 80% of the city's revenues in

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6708-638: The Raid on Kielce Prison and liberated some 350 prisoners. Prior to the 1939 Invasion of Poland , like many other cities across the Second Polish Republic , Kielce had a significant Jewish population. According to the Russian census of 1897 , among the total population of 23,200 inhabitants, there were 6,400 Jews in Kielce (around 27 percent). On the eve of the Second World War there were about 18,000 Jews in

6837-475: The Wayback Machine ClimateBase.ru, Tutiempo As of 31 December 2020 there were 193,415 people living in Kielce. At the end of June 2021, the unemployment rate was 5.0%. As of the end of June 2021, the average per capita income was PLN 4798.67 gross. Other clubs: Kielce is an important transport hub, and is on international and domestic routes: Provincial roads: In addition, Kielce has

6966-417: The 16th-century Polish mannerism is marked by common usage of richly embellished attics of palaces and houses, arcade courtyards and side towers. The church architecture combined the late gothic tradition with renaissance symmetry and mannerist decoration. Churches were slender, usually without towers. The 17th-century Polish mannerism characterize with much more simplicity in decoration in benefit to harmony of

7095-589: The 24th. The very next year, in January 2007, the weather was predominantly of the Atlantic type, resulting in an average high of 5.7 °C (42 °F) and occasional days above 10 °C (50 °F), more typical of coastal locations in Western Europe. As a result of this variability, severe cold with temperatures below −20 °C (−4 °F) can be completely absent during some winters, and in others, it can occur with regularity, even as late as March. Heavy snowfall

7224-449: The 5th century BC. Until the 6th or 7th century, the banks of the Silnica were inhabited by Celts . They were driven out by a Lechitic tribe of Vistulans who started hunting in the nearby huge forests and had settled most of the area now known as Lesser Poland and present-day Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship. The lands of Wiślanie were at first subdued by Bohemia , however they soon came under

7353-614: The District was set up. Already in 1946, there were regular routes to Kraków, Warsaw, Jelenia Góra, Teplice and neighbouring towns. After 1990, the Kielce Bus Station was renamed the PKS Station in Kielce , and has maintained regular passenger long-distance routes. The current Members of Parliament ( Sejm ) elected from Kielce constituency in 2019 Polish parliamentary election are: The current senator elected from Kielce constituency

7482-496: The Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms in the Precambrian , prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the modern ocean. Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock . During diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example, aragonite

7611-569: The Germans on 12 June 1940 at a local stadium. Many Poles from the prison in Kielce were also murdered in the Brzask forest near Skarżysko-Kamienna on 29 June 1940. At least five local Polish boy scouts were killed by the Germans during the war. Notable acts of resistance included theft of 2 tons of TNT from the "Społem" factory run by the Nazis, which were then used by the partisans to make hand grenades. Also,

7740-593: The Germans operated a collection camp for Soviet POWs, seen as potential colaborators. In 1944, during and following the Warsaw Uprising , the Germans deported thousands of Varsovians from the Dulag 121 camp in Pruszków , where they were initially imprisoned, to Kielce. Those Poles were mainly old people, ill people and women with children. 9,000 Poles expelled from Warsaw stayed in Kielce, as of 1 November 1944. Moreover,

7869-530: The Germans. Local Poles provided food and medicine to the POWs. In January and March 1940, the Germans carried out mass arrests of local Poles as part of the AB-Aktion . Among the victims were teachers, priests, and local political and social activists, including women. Arrested Poles were either imprisoned in the local prison, deported to concentration camps or massacred, with a notable massacre of 63 people committed by

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7998-509: The Gulag camps legally. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free and unrestricted Jewish Aliyah to the nascent State of Israel , upon the conclusion of World War II. After the Kielce pogrom Gen. Spychalski of PWP signed a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to do so, at war's end. Britain demanded from Poland (among others) to halt

8127-628: The Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful. Kielce is one of the relatively cooler cities in Poland. It experiences four distinct seasons and has a warm summer subtype humid continental climate ( Dfb ), typical of this part of Europe. It has cool, cloudy winters with almost daily light snowfall and generally moderate temperatures within a few degrees of the freezing point, and moderately warm and sunny summers, with frequent but brief hot spells and abundant rainfall falling mostly during numerous and occasionally severe thunderstorms. Surrounded by

8256-617: The Jews were given one week to relocate. The ghetto was split in two, along Warszawska Street (Nowowarszawska) with the Silnica River ; (pl) running through it. The so-called large ghetto was set up between the streets of Orla, Piotrkowska, Pocieszka, and Warszawska to the east, and the smaller ghetto between Warszawska on the west, and the streets of Bodzentyńska, St. Wojciech, and the St. Wojciech square. The ghetto gates were closed on 5 April 1941;

8385-535: The Municipal Transport Company (MPK Kielce) and Kielce Bus Company Workers (KASP), and the "EU", the free circle lines and some normal lines (13, 23, 24) are operated by BP Tour Regio under an agreement signed with the Management of Urban Transport (ZTM Kielce). In Kielce, there are two depots, one used by MPK and the other used by BP Tour Regio. The rolling stock is composed of about 165 buses. In 2009/10

8514-647: The Napoleon controlled Duchy of Warsaw , but after the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815 it was joined with Russian-controlled Congress Poland . For a brief period when Kraków was an independent city-state ( Republic of Kraków ), Kielce became the capital of the Kraków Voivodeship . Thanks to the efforts by Stanisław Staszic Kielce became the centre of the newly established Old-Polish Industrial Zone ( Staropolski Okręg Przemysłowy ). The town grew quickly as new mines, quarries and factories were constructed. In 1816

8643-585: The Polish Crown Army was stationed in Kielce in 1789. Until the end of the century the city's economy entered a period of fast growth. A brewery was founded as well as several brick factories, a horse breeder, hospital. As a result of the Third Partition of Poland the city was annexed by Austria . During the Austro-Polish War of 1809 it was captured by prince Józef Poniatowski and joined with

8772-596: The Polish Kingdom, Kielce was administratively located in the Sandomierz Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province . The area around Kielce was rich in minerals such as copper ore, lead ore, and iron , as well as limestone. In the 15th century Kielce became a significant centre of metallurgy. There were also several glass factories and armourer shops in the town. In 1527 bishop Piotr Tomicki founded

8901-590: The Prague renaissance with its brunelleschian arcades (inspired by Queen Anna Jagiellon's Belvedere in Prague, 1535–1537) and German influences originating from the late gothic (steep gable with renaissance decoration). Also Silesian mannerism had its impact on neighbouring regions – the arcade courtyard of the Piast Castle in Brzeg, with arcades replaced in upper parts with columns (constructed by Francesco de Pario, 1556–1558),

9030-510: The Russian yoke, for which he was sent to Siberia . In 1863 Kielce took part in the January Uprising . As a reprisal for insubordination the tsarist authorities closed all Polish schools and turned Kielce into a military garrison city. The Polish language was banned. Because of these actions many gymnasium students took part in the 1905 Revolution and were joined by factory workers. After

9159-734: The Transport Authority in Kielce released the Polish Operational Programme Development of Eastern 2007 - 2013 project "Development of public transport system in Kielce Metropolitan Area." They bought 40 new buses - Solaris Urbino 12s, and another 20 were bought in 2010. These buses will support new lines. Part of the project, envisages installation of 24 electronic boards for bus departure times and 20 stationary ticket vending machines. The history of communication dates back to coaches from Kielce in 1945, when

9288-430: The accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for the last 540 million years. Limestone often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the evolution of life. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. The remaining carbonate rock is mostly dolomite , a closely related rock, which contains

9417-434: The base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paint, as a soil conditioner , and as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's petroleum reservoirs . Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). Dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ,

9546-657: The beds. This may include the formation of vugs , which are crystal-lined cavities within the limestone. Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries that cut across bedding. The process of dolomitization remains an area of active research, but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments ( evaporative reflux ) or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments ( Dorag dolomitization ). However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as

9675-596: The beginning of the 17th century came from grain trade). It was also the time of religious tolerance due to the Warsaw Confederation (1573). Poland was a multinational ( Poles , Ruthenians , Jews , Germans , Italians , Dutch , Flemish , Armenians , Scots , Bohemians , and Tatars ) and multi-religious country ( Roman Catholics , Eastern Orthodox , Greek Catholics , Calvinists , Lutherans , Muslims , Polish Brethren , Hussites and many others). All those nations and worships contributed to creation of

9804-636: The bottom with the concave face downwards. This traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone formations. The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa . Mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland Mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland dominated between 1550 and 1650, when it

9933-524: The chapel (1529–1531), and Wawel Castle 's arcade courtyard (1506–1534), as well as buildings in Antwerp - City Hall (1561–1565), houses at Grote Markt and funeral sculptures by the Flemish artist Cornelis Floris de Vriendt . In conclusion the main criterion of differentiation between types of mannerism in Poland is the source of inspiration and in many cases the founders conception played an essential role for

10062-415: The city a temperature range of 70.3 °C (126.5 °F), the second highest in Poland. The city receives 1720 to 1829 hours of sunshine annually, depending on the source, with a notably sunny spring and summer, and a cloudy late autumn and winter. Winds are generally very light throughout the year, with an abundance of calm days, and as a result, cool temperatures often feel much milder than expected due to

10191-617: The city. Between the onset of war and March 1940, the Jewish population of Kielce expanded to 25,400 (35% of all residents), with trains of dispossessed Jews arriving under the escort of German Order Police battalions from the Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany . Immediately after the German occupation of Poland in September 1939, all Jews were ordered to wear a Star of David on their outer garments. Jewish–owned factories in Kielce were confiscated by

10320-633: The construction was more spacious and it employ darker materials – brown marbles from Chęciny , black marbles from Dębnik or imported from the Spanish Netherlands (e.g. Tomb of Báthory brothers in Barczewo ). Some of the most impressive Dutch style tombs in Poland were constructed far from the center of Netherlandish Mannerism in Poland - Gdańsk. These were tombs of Jan Tarnowski in Łowicz (1603–1604) and of Ostrogski family in Tarnów (1612–1620). Many of

10449-615: The construction. The model to the early 17th-century residences were royal palaces. Ujazdów Castle constructed for king Sigismund III Vasa was possible inspiration to the Bishop Palace in Kielce , whereas the Kielce palace was imitated by many magnate families in their residencies (e.g., Tarło Palace in Podzamcze , 1645–1650, and Radziwiłł Palace in Biała Podlaska ). This type of the palace

10578-457: The control of the Piast dynasty and became a part of the emerging Polish state. The area of the Holy Cross Mountains was almost unpopulated until the 11th century when the first hunters established permanent settlements at the outskirts of the mountains. They needed a place to trade furs and meat for grain and other necessary products, and so the market of Kielce was formed. In the early 12th century

10707-555: The corner of Solna and Paderewski Streets. One of the attackers died during the attack and a further four lost their lives not long afterwards. This was not the first assassination attempt against Wittek. In 1942, Henryk Pawelec fired at him in the market square, but his pistol misfired. In February 1943, a unit under the command of Stanisław Fąfar shot at Wittek by the Seminarium building. Wittek, though wounded by 14 bullets, survived. Successful assassinations of local collaborators, including

10836-597: The daring escape from jail in Kielce of a dozen or so AK members, organized in November 1942 by Stanisław Depczyński. Not to mention, a grenade attack by a unit of the GL on the Smoleński coffee shop, killing 6 Germans including a major in the SS (February 1943), as well as the assassination of the noted Gestapo informant Franz Wittek on 15 June 1944, by a unit under Second Lt. Kazimierz Smolak on

10965-462: The depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of

11094-469: The deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are typically described as tufa . Secondary calcite deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters ( groundwater ) in caves is also sometimes described as travertine. This produces speleothems , such as stalagmites and stalactites . Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded pieces of coral , shells , or other fossil debris. When better consolidated, it

11223-406: The earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO 3 by a factor of more than six. The failure of CaCO 3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in

11352-495: The exceptional diversity of mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland. The first half of the 17th century is marked by strong activity of the Jesuits and Counter-Reformation , which led to banishing of progressive Arians (Polish Brethren) in 1658 and which has its reflection in architecture (spread of baroque). Despite that Poland remain a "country without stakes ". All the major wars and military conflicts were conducted far from

11481-1270: The final shape of the construction (e.g., Tomb of Jędrzej Noskowski in Maków Mazowiecki by Willem van den Blocke is an example of Polish mannerism inspired by Tomb of Sigismund I with a founder depicted sleeping). Triangle gables of late Gothic origin and large windows are the features of Dutch urban architecture in Northern Poland. The Polish mannerism, though largely dominated by Italian architects and sculptors, has its unique characteristics that differentiate it from its Italian equivalent ( attics , decorational motives, construction and shape of buildings, Dutch, Bohemian and German influences). Among notable architects and sculptors of Netherlandish Mannerism in Poland were Anthonis van Obbergen , Willem van den Blocke, Abraham van den Blocke , Jan Strakowski, Paul Baudarth, Gerhard Hendrik, Hans Kramer and Regnier van Amsterdam and of Polish/Italian mannerism Santi Gucci, Jan Michałowicz of Urzędów, Giovanni Maria Padovano, Giovanni Battista di Quadro , Jan Frankiewicz, Galleazzo Appiani , Jan Jaroszewicz, Bernardo Morando, Kasper Fodyga, Krzysztof Bonadura, Antoneo de Galia and many others. The architecture of

11610-601: The first Polish technical university was founded in Kielce. However, after Staszic's death the Industrial Zone declined and in 1826 the school was moved to Warsaw and became the Warsaw University of Technology . In 1830 many of the inhabitants of Kielce took part in the November Uprising against Russia. In 1844, priest Piotr Ściegienny  [ pl ] began organising a local revolt to liberate Kielce from

11739-399: The first refers to the grains and the second to the cement. For example, a limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix, would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It focuses on

11868-572: The formation of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone. Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of carbonate rocks collectively known as limestone. Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks . Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names;

11997-532: The free standing tomb monuments were uncommon. The tombs were generally constructed to be attached to the wall, exception is the Niedrzwicki Brothers Tomb in Koprzywnica . During the first stage of mannerism in Poland, the tomb monuments were constructed according to the early renaissance tradition, where the deceased was depicted sleeping. They were generally made of sandstone, while the founder's figure

12126-466: The gas chambers of Treblinka . After the extermination action only 2,000 Jews were left in Kielce, lodged in the labour camp at Stolarska and Jasna Streets (pl) within the small ghetto. Those who survived were sent to other forced labour camps. On 23 May 1943 the Kielce cemetery massacre was perpetrated by the German police; 45 Jewish children who had survived the Kielce Ghetto liquidation, were murdered by Order Police battalions . On 4 July 1946

12255-429: The geologic record are called bioherms . Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix. Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available accommodation space in the shelf or platform. Deposition

12384-412: The hills and forests of Holy Cross Mountains became a scene of heavy partisan activity. A small town of Pińczów located some 30 kilometres (19 miles) from Kielce became the capital of the so-called Pinczów Republic , a piece of Polish land controlled by the partisans. The "Jodla" Świętokrzyskie Mountains Home Army fought against the Germans long before Operation Tempest inflicted heavy casualties on

12513-462: The late renaissance coexisted with early baroque (introduced in Poland in 1597 with Church of SS. Peter and Paul in Kraków). Netherlandish (Dutch-Flemish) and Polish-Italian architectural traditions were not isolated and penetrate each other to create (among others) a unique composition of Krzyżtopór Palace . This, one of the largest constructions of mannerism and early baroque in Poland, was intended as

12642-420: The lives of 4,000 people before mid-1942. During this time, many of them were forced to work at a nearby German munition plant run by Hasag . In August 1942, the Kielce Ghetto was liquidated in the course of only five days. During roundups , all Jews unable to move were shot on the spot including the sick, the elderly, and the disabled; 20,000–21,000 Jews were led into waiting Holocaust trains , and murdered in

12771-520: The local Jewish gathering of some 200 Holocaust survivors from the Planty 7 Street refugee centre of the Zionist Union became the target of the Kielce pogrom in which 37 (40) Jews (17–21 of whom remain unidentified) and 2 ethnic Poles were killed, including 11 fatally shot with military rifles and 11 more stabbed with bayonets, indicating direct involvement of loyal to Moscow Polish communist troops. During

12900-415: The local transport department was created. After many changes today, the city operates 46 regular bus lines (1-53 without 3, 6, 15-17, 20, 22, 37, 39-40, 42, 46, 48-49, 52), 7 "EU" lines (102-114 without 105-106, 109-111, 113), 5 hybrid bus lines (34, 46, 50, 51, 54), two free circle lines (0W and 0Z) two lines of special constants (F, Z) and two night lines (N1, N2). Most of the regular lines are operated by

13029-449: The mannerism in Poland are city and palace fortifications built in Dutch style (Zamość, Ujazd) and town halls with high towers (Biecz, Zamość, Poznań). The most popular decoration techniques were relief (Kazimierz Dolny), sgraffito (Krasiczyn), and rustication (Książ Wielki), whereas the material was mainly brick , plastered brick, sandstone , and sometimes limestone . For some time

13158-624: The munitions factory "Granat" and the food processing plant "Społem". During the Polish Defensive War of 1939, the main portion of the defenders of Westerplatte as well as the armoured brigade of General Stanisław Maczek were either from Kielce or from its close suburbs. During the German occupation that lasted for most of the Second World War , the city was an important centre of resistance . There were several resistance groups active in

13287-516: The new settlement became a property of the Bishops of Kraków , who built a wooden church and a manor. In 1171 a stone church was erected by bishop Gedeon Gryf. During the times of Wincenty Kadłubek a parochial school in Kielce was opened in 1229. By 1295 the town was granted city rights . In the mid-13th century the town was destroyed by the Mongol invasion of Ögedei Khan , but it quickly recovered. Within

13416-454: The occupying forces and later took part in the final liberation of their towns and cities in January 1945. During the war, many of inhabitants of Kielce lost their lives. Following the war, Kielce was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the 1980s. In August 1945, the Polish resistance led by Antoni Heda and Stefan Bembiński carried out

13545-410: The ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in

13674-621: The outbreak of World War I , Kielce was the first Polish city to be liberated from Russian rule by the Polish Legions under Józef Piłsudski . After the war when Poland regained its independence after 123 years of Partitions, Kielce became the capital of Kielce Voivodeship. The plans to strengthen Polish heavy and war industries resulted in Kielce becoming one of the main nodes of the Central Industrial Area ( Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy ). The town housed several big factories, among them

13803-422: The production of tar ( pkielce , a settlement of tar makers). The most probable etymology traces the origins of the name to an Old Polish noun kielce (plural form of kielec , "sprout") and refers to plants sprouting in the wetlands where the settlement was located. The earliest extant document referring to the settlement by the name of Kielce dates to 1213. The area of Kielce has been inhabited since at least

13932-426: The reaction: Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert. Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds . Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just

14061-482: The relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder silicate grains. Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition. Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs , which when they appear in

14190-460: The rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample. A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme. Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed in freshwater environments, particularly waterfalls , cascades and hot springs . Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded. When

14319-479: The sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by pressure solution of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less than 10%. Pressure solution produces distinctive stylolites , irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of

14448-662: The sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in foraminifera and coccolith remains ( Globigerina ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates. In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-Jurassic benthic limestones are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved. Limestones also form in freshwater environments. These limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have

14577-778: The shooting of Jan Bocian took place in broad daylight at a shop in Bodzentyńska Street. Similar was the attack on the factory of C. Wawrzyniak in March 1943, terrorizing and disarming the volksdeutscher workers and destroying the machinery, as well as the attack on the HASAG factory in May 1943 and the takeover of the Kielce Herbskie railway station. The underground University of the Western Lands gave secret lectures in Kielce. From 1942 to 1944,

14706-404: The territory of today's Poland, so the country could developed equally. Those favorable conditions are the reason why mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland left so many beautiful examples. The mannerist architecture and sculpture have two major traditions: Polish-Italian and Netherlandish (Dutch-Flemish), that dominated in northern Poland. The Silesian mannerism of South-Western Poland

14835-613: The town managed to recover under the rule of bishop Andrzej Załuski . During the Great Northern War it was the site of a battle between Swedish forces under Charles XII and Polish and Saxon forces under the Polish-Lithuanian king Augustus II . By 1761 Kielce had more than 4,000 inhabitants. In 1789 Kielce were nationalized and the burgers were granted the right to elect their own representatives in Sejm . The 3rd Infantry Regiment of

14964-551: The town's name Kielce commemorates the mysterious tusks ( kieł in Polish). Various other legends exist to explain the name's origin. One states that the town was named after its founder who belonged to the noble family of Kiełcz, while another claims that it stems from the Celts who may have lived in the area in previous centuries. Other theories connect the town's name to occupational names relating to mud huts, iron tips for arrows and spears, or

15093-570: The town, including Armia Krajowa (AK) and Gwardia Ludowa (GL). Following the invasion, the German Einsatzgruppe II entered the city to commit various atrocities against the population , and the occupiers established a special court in Kielce. In September–November 1939, the Germans also operated a temporary Dulag transit camp for some 3,000 Polish prisoners of war . The POWs were held in poor conditions, there were cases of dysentery and typhoid fever , and 18 POWs were executed by

15222-533: The water by photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate. Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures, such as lamination , are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of organisms ( bioturbation ). Fine lamination is characteristic of limestone formed in playa lakes , which lack the burrowing organisms. Limestones also show distinctive features such as geopetal structures , which form when curved shells settle to

15351-553: The water. Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO 3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity. Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms . The origin of carbonate mud, and the processes by which it is converted to micrite, continue to be a subject of research. Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles around 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length. Needles of this shape and composition are produced by calcareous algae such as Penicillus , making this

15480-415: The winter months. Winter conditions are highly dependent on the source region of the air mass that dominates during a particular month, resulting in tremendous variability from one year to the next. For example, in January 2006, the city experienced typically continental winter weather, resulting in an average daytime high of −3.7 °C (25 °F), recording a nighttime low of −30 °C (−22 °F) on

15609-837: Was Bonifaz Wohlmut's reconstruction of Belvedere in Prague , 1557–1563). The Bohemian mannerism had also large influence on the architecture and sculpture in Poland. This concerned not only the lands that were part of the Kingdom of Bohemia , like Silesia . The familiar relations between the Habsburgs and the Polish Vasas enabled to draw form the patterns of Prague mannerism . Both king Sigismund III and his son Władysław IV Vasa as well as magnates purchased many sculptures in Prague, especially those by Adriaen de Vries . Bohemian mannerism in Silesia joined

15738-534: Was a place of meetings of cultures. The mannerist architecture in the city was a combination of many types of mannerist traditions, including Lublin type ( Jesuit Church ), Greater Poland mannerism (Kanonia), Italian mannerism with elements of early baroque ( Royal Castle ), Lesser Poland mannerism (Kryski Chapel), Poggio–Reale type ( Villa Regia Palace – not existing), Bohemian and Netherlandish Mannerism ( Ossoliński Palace – not existing, possible inspiration to palace's upper parts pavilion with characteristic roof

15867-601: Was carved in red marble (e.g. Tarnowski Tomb in Tarnów Cathedral). In the beginning of the 17th century, Dutch and Flemish architects and sculptors (especially Willem van den Blocke and his son Abraham) popularised in Poland new type of tomb monument originating from the Cornelis Floris workshop (e.g. not existing Tomb of duke Albert of Prussia in the Königsberg Cathedral ). The founders were depicted kneeling,

15996-416: Was completed. Currently, Kielce is an important intersection of railway lines, running to Częstochowa and Lubliniec, Warsaw, Kraków and Sandomierz. Within the administrative boundaries of the city there are the following railway stations: Kielce, Kielce Piaski, Kielce Białogon, Kielce Herbskie, Kielce Ślichowice. At present, air services are only available to the residents of Kielce at Kielce-Masłów Airport ,

16125-609: Was destroyed during the Deluge and currently remains in ruins. Lublin region created its own style with folk motives (Kazimierz Dolny), while the urban mannerism in Greater Poland replaced the gothic gables with Italian style arcades, tympanums , friezes and pillars in tuscan order (Poznań). Warsaw, as one of the main cities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and due to its role as seat of Parliament and King,

16254-406: Was finally replaced with baroque . The style includes various mannerist traditions, which are closely related with ethnic and religious diversity of the country, as well as with its economic and political situation at that time. The mannerist complex of Kalwaria Zebrzydowska and mannerist City of Zamość are UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The period between 1550 and 1650 was a Golden Age of

16383-501: Was largely influenced by Bohemian and German mannerism, while the Pomeranian mannerism of North-Western Poland was influenced by Gothic tradition and Northern German mannerism. The Jews in Poland adapted patterns of Italian and Polish mannerism to their own tradition. The major inspiration for many structures in Poland was early renaissance constructions at Wawel Hill – Sigismund's Chapel (1519–1533), tomb of king Sigismund I inside

16512-416: Was likely deposited in pore space between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud. Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment. Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously when

16641-732: Was possible inspiration for similar constructions in Bohemia – Opočno Castle (1560–1567), Jindřichův Hradec Castle (loggia, before 1597), and Schloss Güstrow in Germany (built by Pario after 1558). Characteristic for Jewish mannerism in Poland is adjustment of the Polish/Italian patterns to the Jewish tradition, rejection of human images in benefit to the sophisticated floral-animal decorations ( tendrils , lions), mythological creatures ( unicorns , griffins ) and Hebrew inscriptions . The synagogues were adorned with horizontal attics (Zamość) or had

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