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32-722: The Kebnekaise massif lies within a range of the Scandinavian mountains that is bordered by the glacial valleys Ladtjovagge (Sami spelling Láddjuvággi), Tjäktjavagge (Čeakčavággi) and Vistasvagge (Visttasvággi). The highest points of the massif lie along the ridge (called "Vargryggen" in Swedish) that runs from the southern and northern summits to Kebnepakte (Giebmebákti) at 1,981 metres (6,499 ft). Other subsidiary peaks are Kebnetjåkka (Giebmečohkka), Vierranvárri , Tolpagorni 1,662 metres (5,453 ft) , Guobircohkka 1,506 metres (4,941 ft), and Siŋŋibákti 1,614 metres (5,295 ft). Of

64-455: A via ferrata . There is also a third, less known route only marked with cairns — "Durlings led", which branches off Kungsleden a few kilometers north of Singi, goes about two kilometers into Singivagge, and then turns north into the valley between Kuopertjåkka and Siŋŋibákti. "Durlings led" eventually merges with the western route at "Kaffedalen", the pass between Vierranvárri and Kebnekaise. Advantages with this route are lack of exposure and

96-510: A RNoAF Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules military aircraft crashed into the western snowy mountain side a short distance below the ridge that runs between the mountain's two highest peaks. Five Norwegian officers were killed. Glacial valley U-shaped valleys , also called trough valleys or glacial troughs , are formed by the process of glaciation . They are characteristic of mountain glaciation in particular. They have

128-407: A U-shaped, glaciated valley is often stepwise where flat basins are interrupted by thresholds. Rivers often dig a V-shaped valley or gorge through the threshold. Surrounding smaller tributary valleys will often join the main valleys during glaciation periods, leaving behind features known as hanging valleys high in the trough walls after the ice melts. After deglaciation, snow and ice melt from

160-526: A cam-action lever attaches the crampon to the heel. The last type (strap bindings) is more versatile and can adapt to virtually any boot or shoe, but often does not fit as precisely as the other two types. Oscar Eckenstein designed the first 10-point crampon in 1908, dramatically reducing the need for step cutting. This design was then made commercially available by the Italian Henry Grivel. Crampons are made of steel alloy, lightweight aluminum, or

192-415: A characteristic U shape in cross-section, with steep, straight sides and a flat or rounded bottom (by contrast, valleys carved by rivers tend to be V-shaped in cross-section). Glaciated valleys are formed when a glacier travels across and down a slope, carving the valley by the action of scouring. When the ice recedes or thaws, the valley remains, often littered with small boulders that were transported within

224-688: A classic U-shaped valley that is also a fjord is the Western Brook Pond Fjord in Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland , Canada. Formation of a U-shaped valley happens over geologic time , meaning not during a human's lifespan. It can take anywhere between 10,000 and 100,000 years for a V-shaped valley to be carved into a U-shaped valley. These valleys can be several thousand feet deep and tens of miles long. Glaciers will spread out evenly in open areas, but tend to carve deep into

256-433: A combination of the two. Lighter weight crampons are popular for alpine ski touring where demands are generally lower and lightweight a premium. Early 10-point crampons lacked forward-angled spikes and thus required step cutting on steep terrain. In the 1930s two additional forward-slanting points were added, making them exceptional for mountaineering and glacier travel and beginning a revolution in front pointing . There

288-449: A depth of 100 m, which, according to the geothermal gradient indicates a permafrost thickness of about 330 meters. In consequence, the much higher Kebnekaise must show a permafrost thickness of several hundred meters. In Europe there are no higher mountains further north. During clear weather, a vast area can be seen from the summit, according to some sources as much as 9% of Sweden. Kebnekaise mountain lodge ( Kebnekaise fjällstation )

320-726: A full "strap-in" system and a "hybrid" binding that features a toe strap at the front and a heel lever at the back. To prevent snow from balling up under crampons, especially in temperatures around freezing, most models can be fitted with plastic or rubber "anti-balling" systems to reduce build-up. Rubber models use flexion to repel snow while plastic anti-balling plates employ a hydrophobic surface to prevent adhesion. Crampons are graded C1, C2 and C3 relative to their flexibility and general compatibility with different styles of boots. No crampons are suitable for B0 boots (flexible walking boots). Specialized "ski crampons" are employed in ski mountaineering on hard snow and ice. Far more common in

352-453: A shorter ascent if Singivagge is used for an overnight camp. A fit hiker used in off track rock and scree walking can summit from the Kungsleden in good weather in about 6 hours up and 4-5 hours back down. Just below the top plateau is an old smaller cabin at 1,880 metres (6,170 ft) altitude. A large cabin used to stand below the plateau, near the smaller one, until September 2018, when it

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384-504: Is also an established destination for winter alpinism and guided skiing tours are organised by the STF lodge's guides. The first ascent to the summit was made on 22 August 1883 by an expedition led by Charles Rabot from France with the locals Jon Larsson, Hans Monsen and Peder Abrahamsson Lindgren. They started from the Skjomen fjord, Norway since the first railway in the region was built 1888. This

416-423: Is currently a range of models, including specialized crampons with as many as 14 points and models with single points for ice climbing. Crampons are fastened to footwear by means of a binding system. Improved attachment systems – such as a cam action "step-in" system similar to a ski binding and particularly well adapted to plastic technical mountaineering boots - have widely increased crampon use. Crampons also use

448-427: Is located to the southeast at the foot of Kebnekaise, about 19 kilometres (12 mi), 3–7 hours hike from the trailhead at Nikkaluokta (boat trip possible for 5 km). It is the starting point for an ascent of the south summit via the western route ( västra leden , about 9 kilometres (5.6 mi), 5–7 hours to the summit) or the eastern route ( östra leden , about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), 3–5 hours to

480-456: Is quite soft and it was unbelievable to many that it could be responsible for the severe carving of bedrock characteristic of glacial erosion. German geologist Penck and American geologist Davis were vocal supporters of this unprecedented glacial erosion. Progress was made in the 1970s and 1980s on the possible mechanisms of glacial erosion and U-shaped valleys via models proposed by various scientists. Numerical models have been created to explain

512-463: Is the highest fixed point in Sweden) within a few years' time. However, as of July 2015, Tarfala Research Station reports that the glacier has grown by 4.5 to 2,102 metres (15 to 6,896 ft) — from its lowest measurement of 2,097.5 metres (6,882 ft) the previous year. The massif is heavily glaciated , with Kebnepakteglaciären , Isfallsglaciären , and Storglaciären towards Tarfala Valley to

544-893: The Alps than in the United States, these ski crampons are known by their European names: Harscheisen (German), couteaux (French) and coltelli (Italian) , literally French and Italian for " knives " in those languages. While crampons generally have a solid frame, and large spikes, and may only be attached to a mountaineering boot , microspikes typically are flexible rubber or metal chains with more, smaller spikes. Since crampons are tighter and have larger spikes, they are typically used for mountaineering on steep and dense snow or glacial ice in order to maintain strong traction and avoid falls, whereas microspikes may be attached to multiple types of shoes and are generally used for hiking on flatter surfaces such as snow or even gravel or dirt. Heel spurs are

576-724: The Lake District , Yosemite Valley , and the Rottal and Engstlige  [ de ] valleys in Switzerland . Glacial troughs also exist as submarine valleys on continental shelves, such as the Laurentian Channel . These geomorphic features significantly influence sediment distribution and biological communities through their modification of current patterns. Geologists did not always believe that glaciers were responsible for U-shaped valleys and other glacial erosional features. Ice

608-555: The Principal Cordillera of the Andes, glacial valley floors may be covered by thick lava flows . A glacial trough or glaciated mountain valley often ends in an abrupt head known as the 'trough end' or 'trough head'. This may have almost sheer rock walls and spectacular waterfalls . They are believed to have been formed where a number of small glaciers merge to produce a much larger glacier. Examples include: Warnscale Bottom in

640-840: The Scottish Highlands . A classic glacial trough is in Glacier National Park in Montana , USA in which the St. Mary River runs. Another well-known U-shaped valley is the Nant Ffrancon valley in Snowdonia , Wales . When a U-shaped valley extends into saltwater, becoming an inlet of the sea, it is called a fjord , from the Norwegian word for these features that are common in Norway. Outside of Norway,

672-634: The contact surfaces with greatest resistance to flow, and the resulting section minimises friction. There are two main variations of this U-shape. The first is called the Rocky Mountain model and it is attributed to alpine glacial valleys, showing an overall deepening effect on the valley. The second variation is referred to as the Patagonia-Antarctica model, attributed to continental ice sheets and displaying an overall widening effect on its surroundings. The floors of these glacial valleys are where

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704-599: The east, Björlings glaciär to the southeast, and Rabots glaciär to the west, plus several smaller glaciers throughout the area. Permafrost is widely distributed in the Kebnekaise massif. This is supported by a 100 m deep drilling in bedrock in the Tarfala Valley at the foot of the Kebnekaise. The borehole above the Tarfala research station at an altitude of 1540 meters shows a year-round stable rock temperature of −2.75 °C at

736-403: The ground when confined to a valley. Ice thickness is a major contributing factor to valley depth and carving rates. As a glacier moves downhill through a valley, usually with a stream running through it, the shape of the valley is transformed. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. This parabolic shape is caused by glacial erosion removing

768-437: The huge void on the eastern side. This danger might not always be apparent, even when there is good visibility. Routes to the northern summit, including one via the narrow, icy arête from the southern summit, require mountaineering equipment and skills. Due to the harsh subarctic climate at the location, Kebnekaise sees the vast majority of climbers during the summer months (late June to early September). However, Kebnekaise

800-748: The ice, called glacial till or glacial erratic . Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in mountainous regions throughout the world including the Andes , Alps , Caucasus Mountains , Himalaya , Rocky Mountains , New Zealand and the Scandinavian Mountains . They are found also in other major European mountains including the Carpathian Mountains , the Pyrenees , the Rila and Pirin mountains in Bulgaria , and

832-799: The most evidence can be found regarding glaciation cycles. For the most part, the valley floor is wide and flat, but there are various glacial features that signify periods of ice transgression and regression. The valley can have various steps, known as valley steps , and over-deepenings anywhere from ten to hundreds of meters deep. These then fill in with sediments to create plains or water to create lakes, sometimes referred to as "string-of-pearl" or ribbon lakes. Such water filled U-valley basins are also known as "fjord-lakes" or "valley-lakes" (Norwegian: fjordsjø or dalsjø ). Gjende and Bandak lakes in Norway are examples of fjord -lakes. Some of these fjord-lakes are very deep for instance Mjøsa (453 meters) and Hornindalsvatnet (514 m). The longitudinal profile of

864-488: The mountain tops can create streams and rivers in U-shaped valleys. These are referred to as misfit streams. The streams that form in hanging valleys create waterfalls that flow into the main valley branch. Glacial valleys may also have natural, often dam-like, structures within them, called moraines . They are created due to excess sediment and glacial till moved and deposited by the glacier. In volcanic mountain ranges, such as

896-570: The phenomenon of carving U-shaped valleys. Crampons A crampon is a traction device attached to footwear to improve mobility on snow and ice during ice climbing . Besides ice climbing, crampons are also used for secure travel on snow and ice, such as crossing glaciers , snowfields and icefields , ascending snow slopes, and scaling ice-covered rock. There are three main attachment systems: step-in, hybrid, and strap bindings. The first two require boots with welts , or specialized mountaineering boots with dedicated front and rear lugs, as

928-412: The summit). The western route leads over steep scree slopes and the intermediate peak Vierranvárri . Most of this route to the top is simple hiking, but there is a short exposed part that could possibly count as scrambling ( YDS grade 2). The eastern route leads over glaciers and rocks and offers exposure ( YDS grade 4). The steepest section is equipped with fixed steel cables for protection, similar to

960-416: The two highest points, the southern peak lies on a glacier situated on a rocky plateau. The glacier has shrunk in recent years, and therefore the summit is not as high as earlier. The top was traditionally said to be 2,111 metres (6,926 ft), and higher in the oldest measurement, i.e. 2,117 metres (6,946 ft). If the melting continues at the same rate, the south peak will sink below the north peak (which

992-471: Was demolished by the county administration due to being too worn. A cabin up on the plateau was opened in 2016 as a replacement. The peak glacier is a small top, merely tens of meters high, on a rocky plateau. To approach the actual mountaintop on the glacier, crampons or other means of enhancing traction may be required, depending on snow conditions. The glacier should be walked upon with great caution; fatal accidents have occurred with people sliding off into

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1024-463: Was only published later. More media attention was given to the first Swedish expedition led by Johan Alfred Björling who summited on 9 July 1889. The Kebnekaise mountain lodge was opened in 1908, starting more substantial tourism to the mountain. The fastest ascent from the mountain lodge to the summit and back is 1:47:17 made on 9 July 2020 by Petter Engdahl . The fastest woman is Emelie Forsberg in 2:00:40 done on 7 July 2014. On 15 March 2012

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