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100-454: In the 6th century, the historian Procopius wrote the name Kastoria was used for the lake. The first reference to the town of Kastoria is by historian John Skylitzes writing about the late 10th century. The toponym Kastoria means "place of beavers" and is derived from kastori (καστόρι), the Greek word for beaver and an animal whose local habitat was along the shores of lake Kastoria. The name of

200-472: A captured sea monster as evidence of the narrative's feasibility. John II Doukas John II Doukas , also Angelos Doukas ( Latinized as Angelus Ducas ) ( Greek : Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Δούκας , romanized :  Iōannēs Angelos Doukas ), was ruler of Great Vlachia ( Thessaly ) from 1303 to his death in 1318. John II Angelos Doukas was the son of Constantine Doukas of Thessaly by his wife Anna Euagionissa. He succeeded to his father's lands as

300-503: A "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their ekklesía had been a popular assembly . The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church. Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after Eusebius . However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This

400-482: A Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975 which discusses his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the province of Palaestina Prima . He would have received a conventional upper class education in the Greek classics and rhetoric , perhaps at the famous school at Gaza . He may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut ) or Constantinople (now Istanbul ), and became

500-522: A child in 1303. The Thessalian magnates chose his father's cousin Duke Guy II de la Roche of Athens as regent, and the duke promptly established his protectorate over Thessaly, with Anthony le Flamenc as his deputy ( bailli ). Guy was the son of Duke William I de la Roche by Helena Komnene, the daughter of John I Doukas of Thessaly. The selection of the duke of Athens as regent proved both timely and fortuitous. Anna Palaiologina Kantakouzene ,

600-570: A few local Jews, several other Kastorians, and officials. The Kastoria Jewish diaspora in Israel and the US supported moves to reclaim the properties. The Central Board managed to gain control of a few communal properties after purchasing them from their Jewish owners. The Jewish community had dwindled to one family, and during the 1980s, relatives and business were factors which influenced Jews to remain in Kastoria. By

700-484: A kindergarten and school. In 1928, Kastorian Jews numbered 1,000. In 1928, a Zionist association was formed in Kastoria, and some of the town's Jewish children were sent to study and live in Mandate Palestine . In World War Two, Kastoria and its Jewish population came under Italian, and later, German occupation. The Jewish community numbered 900 people in 1940 and 1943. Some Jews became partisans, and others fled to

800-415: A lawyer ( rhetor ). He evidently knew Latin , as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor Justinian   I , he became the legal adviser ( adsessor ) for Belisarius , a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire. Procopius was with Belisarius on

900-697: A nearby village. In late March 1944, 763 Kastorian Jews residing in the Jewish neighbourhood were taken prisoner, while 50 went into hiding, and the Greek Orthodox Archbishop secured the release of 30–40 Jews. During April 1944, the German army sent the town's Jews first to Thessaloniki , and later to the Auschwitz concentration camp where they were gassed. In 1945, the Kastoria Jewish community numbered 35 people;

1000-401: A portrayal of Justinian and Theodora as caricatural villains. The Buildings ( Ancient Greek : Περὶ Κτισμάτων , Perì Ktismáton ; Latin : De Aedificiis , "On Buildings") is a panegyric on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire. The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that

1100-730: A reduction of 95 percent due to the Holocaust . The Jewish population of Kastoria was 38 in 1948, 27 in 1959, two in 1973, and five in 1983. Post war, heirless Jewish properties of Kastoria were 22 dwellings, three shops, and 35 land lots, and were administered by the OPAIE (The Heirless Property and Jewish Rehabilitation Fund). In the early 1970s, the Central Board of Jewish Communities, an organisation representing Jewish communities in Greece, attempted to liquidate Jewish properties in Kastoria with support from

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1200-442: A sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty

1300-524: A town located near a lake in Orestis and mentioned by historian Livy in reference to the events of 199 BC. Celetrum surrendered to Publius Sulpicius Galba during the Roman war (200–197 BC) against Philip V of Macedon . The ancient town was possibly located on a hill above the town's current location. The Roman Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305 AD) founded the town of Diocletianopolis (Διοκλητιανούπολις) in

1400-409: A weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius. Justinian and Theodora are portrayed as the antithesis of "good" rulers, with each representing

1500-485: Is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon: And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while

1600-413: Is fulsome. Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius's Buildings , historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor Justin I . By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius

1700-443: Is named Aristotelis Airport . The Ottoman fiscal register of 1445 showed a total population of 4,518, of which 3,977 were Chritians, 431 were Jews, and 110 were Muslims. In 1519, the town had 4,815 people, of which 4,480 were Christians and 335 were Muslims, divided into 732 Christian households and 67 Muslim households. Muslims were a minority in Kastoria, and would remain a minority for the duration of Ottoman rule. According to

1800-418: Is run by Kastorian Greeks, such as Castor Furs; a business involved in the fashion industry . Other industries include the sale and distribution of locally grown produce; particularly wheat , apples , wine , and fish . Recently a large shopping center has been built in the city of Kastoria. Kastoria has 16 local radio stations, two TV stations, five daily newspapers, and seven weekly ones. The town's airport

1900-422: Is supported by Whitby 's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and its cathedral in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics. Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's vicegerent , making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric. Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself and, if he had, he would probably have followed

2000-649: The illustres . Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in Constantinople's senate , which was restricted to the illustres under Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560, a major Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site of the Temple Mount . It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians—including Howard-Johnson , Cameron , and Geoffrey Greatrex—date his death to 554, but there

2100-584: The Exarchate . He supported close interaction among local Turks and Greeks, but only when it was needed. Greece sent more funds, men and arms to individuals such as Karavangelis in Macedonia. When the Greek fighter and officer Pavlos Melas was killed in action in 1904, Karavangelis arranged to have his body buried within the Metropolis of Kastoria , after first having threatened to mobilize the town's Greek population if

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2200-751: The Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna , in 540. Both the Wars and the Secret History suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths , now led by the able king Totila , Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff. As magister militum , Belisarius

2300-544: The Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, there was Greek revolutionary activity in Kastoria as throughout the towns and villages of western Macedonia . John Papareskas was a notable Greek revolutionary from Kastoria. Revolutinary activity attracted the attention of the Ottoman authorities and the Ottoman commander Mehmet Emin took several Greek notables as hostages from towns in western Macedonia, including Kastoria. Following

2400-608: The Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths . Procopius includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd sieges of Rome . He also includes an account of the rise of the Franks (see Arborychoi ). The last book describes the eunuch Narses 's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along

2500-544: The Monuments Museum are also located in the city. During the Ottoman times, Kastoria attracted a multitude of people from across the Balkans and beyond, resulting in a diverse, multi-ethnic community. As a result, the city plan was radically transformed. The different ethnic communities, Bulgarian , Turkish , Greek , and Jewish , became centred around separate neighbourhoods or 'quarters'. Two old Greek lakeside quarters,

2600-653: The New Lands in Greece , administered as part of the Church of Greece . Kastoria originally had 72 Byzantine and medieval churches, of which 54 have survived; including Panagia Koumpelidiki and St Athanasius of Mouzaki . Some of these have been restored and provide useful insight into trends in Late Byzantine styles of architecture and fresco painting. The Museum of Byzantine History located on Dexamenis Square houses many examples of Byzantine iconography. The Costume Museum and

2700-561: The Nicaeans to recapture it following the Battle of Pelagonia (1259). In the early 14th century, Kastoria was part of the domain of John II Doukas , " doux of Great Vlachia and Kastoria". After his death, the town became part of the semi-autonomous domain of Stephen Gabrielopoulos . After the latter's death in 1332/3, the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos took over the town, but in

2800-438: The Secret History was written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime. The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor Justinian   I . Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the Secret History that claims to report

2900-476: The Secret History would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora. Researcher Anthony Kaldellis suggests that the Secret History is a tale of the dangers of "the rule of women". Procopius's perspective was that women's vices vanquished men's virtuous leadership. For Procopius, it was not that women could not lead an empire, but only women demonstrating masculine virtues were suitable as leaders. Rather than Theodora's true possession of strength, it

3000-554: The United States , and by the early twentieth century those from Kastoria had formed a Kastoria Society. In the modern period, the community still uses the name Kastoria for burial plots. Under Ottoman rule, the Jews of Kastoria had close ties with the Jewish community of Monastir (modern Bitola ). The levels of Jewish education increased in Kastoria after the organisation Alliance Israélite Universelle provided funding and support in 1903. In

3100-423: The "Doltso" (Dolcho) and "Apozari" neighbourhoods, are among the best-preserved and last remaining traditional quarters of the city. These neighbourhoods are characterised by the rich stock of old houses preserved in the shape of autonomous historic buildings, such as the important private mansions or the more humble folk dwellings ('accessory' buildings) built between the 17th and 19th centuries. During this time,

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3200-582: The 13th and 14th centuries, the town became contested between several powers and changed hands often. The Second Bulgarian Empire held the city under Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II . Under the Bulgarians, Kastoria had a significant Romaniote Jewish community, with prominent individuals such as scholar Tobiah ben Eliezer . Later, it was recovered by the Despotate of Epirus . The Nicaean Empire captured it in ca. 1252, but lost it again to Epirus in ca. 1257, only for

3300-508: The 1980s they numbered 25,000 in the New York area, and worked as furriers; younger generations worked as lawyers and doctors. A Kastorian Greek diaspora numbering 10,000 in the 1980s established itself in Frankfurt after it replaced Leipzig as Germany's new fur industry centre, following its post–war division . Nowadays Kastoria is a prosperous provincial town, its economy being mainly driven by

3400-688: The Albanian Muzaka family , until it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1380s. The Ottoman Turks conquered Kastoria around 1385, but it is unclear whether by force or by an agreement with its Albanian rulers. Following the conquest and depopulation of Constantinople , the Romaniote Jews from Kastoria were forcefully resettled by the Ottomans in Balat district as part of efforts to repopulate

3500-516: The Catalan Company himself, and charged it with asserting his authority over Thessaly. The Catalans conquered many fortresses, but insisted on garrisoning them by themselves. Frightened by their disobedience, Walter now turned against them, but the Catalans invaded his duchy in 1310. When the two forces clashed, Walter was defeated and killed in the Battle of Halmyros or Kephissos in 1311. With

3600-521: The Catalans moving into Boeotia , Attica , and the Gulf of Corinth coast, John II was able to exert more control over Thessaly. Here he encountered the opposition of the local magnates, who had probably become accustomed to central authority that had been even more ineffectual than usually. John attempted to strengthen his position by drawing closer to the Byzantine Empire and marrying Irene Palaiologina,

3700-548: The German army sent the town's Jews first to Thessaloniki and later to the Auschwitz concentration camp where they were gassed. In 1945, the Kastoria Jewish community numbered 35 people, a reduction of 95 percent due to the Holocaust . Kastoria was liberated from German rule by the guerrillas of the Greek People's Liberation Army . Following the Greek Civil War , large numbers of Kastorian Greeks migrated abroad, where in

3800-475: The Jewish community. Jews with Italian and Spanish origins from Vlorë , later went to Berat , and by 1740 had resettled in Kastoria due to several epidemics. Several blood libels were made toward the Jewish community during the 19th century. In 1873, a Jewish school was founded in the town. Bandits took 70 Jews hostage in 1887, and their release was secured by the Jewish community. Some Kastorian Jews migrated to Salonika . Ladino-speaking Jews immigrated to

3900-745: The Muslim minority). The 1920 Greek census recorded 6,280 people in the town, and 829 inhabitants (242 families) were Muslim in 1923. The Muslim minority of Kastoria was sent to Turkey during the Greek–Turkish population exchange (1923), and resettled in places such as Bor , Kahramanmaraş , and Yozgat in Turkey. Following the exchange, there were 101 Greek refugee families from Asia Minor , 19 from East Thrace , and one from Pontus in 1926. The 1928 Greek census recorded 10,308 inhabitants. In 1928, Greek refugee families numbered 137 (588 people). A Jewish presence in

4000-527: The Ottoman authorities did not surrender Melas' body. Ottoman rule ended in Kastoria after it was taken by the Greek Army in the First Balkan War (1912). In 1913, the town was annexed and the treaties of London and Bucharest formally recognised Kastoria and the wider area as part of Greece. During both World War II and the Greek Civil War , the town was repeatedly fought over and heavily damaged in

4100-536: The Ottomans in Balat district as part of efforts to repopulate the city. A synagogue named after Kastoria was built and still stands in modern Istanbul . Toward the end of the 15th century, Jews expelled from Italy, Sicily, Portugal and Spain settled in Kastoria and became an important part of the population. In the late seventeenth century, the Jewish messianic Sabbatean movement had some prominent supporters in Kastoria, although most remained as practicing Jews. An epidemic during 1719–1720 resulted in 62 deaths among

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4200-512: The Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the Secret History . The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a set. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brought the history to 553. The first two books—often known as The Persian War ( Latin : De Bello Persico )—deal with

4300-555: The area is recorded as early as late antiquity, when a Jewish community resided in Emperor Justinian's settlement. At the time of the First Bulgarian Empire, Kastoria had a significant Romaniote Jewish community, with prominent individuals such as scholar Tobiah ben Eliezer . Following the conquest and depopulation of Constantinople , the Romaniote Jews from Kastoria led by Matthias Tamar, were forcefully resettled by

4400-495: The brothers Panagiotis and John Emmanuel. When they were arrested by the Austrian authorities and handed over to the Ottomans, John Emmanuel admitted that he had smuggled a copy of Feraios' revolutionary song "Thourios" ( Greek : Θούριος ) into Kastoria and sang it there many times. Theocharis escaped execution thanks to his Austrian citizenship, but those of Feraios' companions that did not possess foreign citizenship were executed. When

4500-634: The capture of Carthage , and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor Solomon the Eunuch when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536 , although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny in and around Carthage . He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced

4600-405: The cemetery in the next decade and turned the site into military barracks. Several stones were preserved. Some tombstones were repurposed for the storage room floor, and most stones were reused to construct the pathways of the site and barracks. During the Ottoman era, a Muslim minority resided in Kastoria and constructed various public, private and religious buildings. Kastoria had seven mosques in

4700-486: The city, as well as structural degradation from poor levels of conservation. These sites were included on the 7 Most Endangered list of Europe's most at-risk monuments and sites in 2014. During the late fifteenth century, a synagogue in Kastoria was built and was one of several in the region with the name Aragon. Kastoria had four synagogues (Italian, Portuguese, Romaniot and Spanish) in the early 18th century. Fire destroyed three synagogues between 1719 and 1720. A synagogue

4800-459: The city. Toward the end of the 15th century, Jews expelled from Italy, Sicily, Portugal and Spain settled in Kastoria. In 1519, Kastoria was a zeamet of Chamberlain Mehmed Bey, and the infantry commander of Thessaloniki, Hızır. The town also had Voynuks . The establishment of Ottoman rule resulted in the demise of the local Greek landowning class, and funding of the arts and culture in Kastoria

4900-561: The conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia , Syria , Armenia , Lazica , and Iberia (present-day Georgia ). It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah Kavadh   I , the 532 'Nika' revolt , the war by Kavadh's successor Khosrau   I in 540, his destruction of Antioch and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague that devastated

5000-423: The death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of the emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonina: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that

5100-420: The destruction of Moscopole (late eighteenth century), some Aromanian refugees attempted to settle in Kastoria, and their efforts were unsuccessful due to concerns by local Kastorians over economic competition from newcomers. Later, Aromanians with origins from Moscopole, Nikolicë , Vithkuq and other locations settled in Kastoria, and by the mid–nineteenth century the upper class of the town's Greek community

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5200-465: The early twentieth century, the Kastorian Jews were Sephardim and numbered some 1,600. In Kastoria, the Jewish community had a chief rabbi , three yeshivot (Jewish religious schools), and several synagogues. In 1906 the Jewish population numbered 1,600, and in 1908 a blood libel occurred. Throughout the 1920s, the Jewish community had two synagogues, two welfare organisations, a society for burials,

5300-599: The eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general Mundus repressed with a massacre in the Hippodrome there. In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the Vandal kingdom in North Africa , took part in

5400-463: The empire from 542. The Persian War also covers the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some detail. The Wars ’ next two books—known as The Vandal War or Vandalic War ( Latin : De Bello Vandalico )—cover Belisarius's successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom that had occupied Rome's provinces in northwest Africa for the last century. The final four books—known as The Gothic War ( Latin : De Bello Gothico )—cover

5500-646: The empire's eastern borders as well. The Wars proved influential on later Byzantine historiography. In the 570s Agathias wrote Histories , a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style. Procopius's now famous Anecdota , also known as Secret History ( Ancient Greek : Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία , Apókryphe Historía ; Latin : Historia Arcana ), was discovered centuries later at the Vatican Library in Rome and published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623. Its existence

5600-416: The eyes of many scholars, the Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife Theodora , the general Belisarius , and his wife Antonina . The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it

5700-410: The findings of Vasil Kanchov , at the turn of the 20th century, the town had 3,000 Greek Christians, 1,600 Turkish Muslims, 750 Jews, 300 Bulgarian Christians, 300 Albanian Christians, and 240 Roma , for a total of 6,190 inhabitants. According to the findings of Dimitri Mishev, the town had a population of 4,000 Greek Christians , 400 Bulgarian Patriarchist Grecomans and 72 Vlachs in 1905 (excluding

5800-419: The fur industry and tourism, the latter due to the town's physical attractiveness and many historical Byzantine churches. Kastoria is a popular tourist destination and an international centre of fur trade, having taken so the nickname the city of the fur traders . Tourism and the fur industry dominate the local economy. Indeed, (as mentioned above) the town was possibly named after one of the former staples of

5900-408: The illegitimate daughter of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos in 1315. Perhaps at this time John was conferred the title of sebastokratōr . He was already relying on some Byzantine assistance against the Catalans within his domains, but died in 1318 without heirs. On John II's death in 1318 much of northwestern Thessaly came under the control of the powerful magnate Stephen Gabrielopoulos , but

6000-517: The interwar period, local Jews were involved in the textile, agricultural, and raw material sectors of Kastoria's economy. In modern Kastoria, there are more than 300 small and big dealers in fur. Abroad, early twentieth century immigration to New York from Kastoria by Greeks involved in fur production expanded the local US industry, as demand for fur clothing increased, with most small businesses owned by Kastorian Greeks. The modern fur industry in New York

6100-575: The late 10th century during the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars . The town was in Bulgarian hands until 1018, when it was conquered by Basil II . Kastoria was occupied by the Normans under Bohemond I in 1082/83. In October 1083, emperor Alexios I Komnenos forced the garrison to surrender, recovering thus the town and convincing many Norman troops, including Peter Aliphas , to enter his services. During

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6200-407: The late Ottoman period. Several mosques were constructed on sites or used, as had been Muslim practice, earlier Christian churches. Gazi Ervenos Mosque or Gula Mosque was the earliest built in the town after the Ottoman conquest. After 1912, Greek troops in Kastoria demolished the minaret and in 1926 the remaining mosque was demolished and replaced with a reservoir. Kule Mosque or Mosque of Dioikitiriou

6300-538: The late twentieth century the Jewish presence in Kastoria had disappeared due to deaths and migration. Members from the Kastorian Jewish diaspora produced Trezoros: The Lost Jews of Kastoria , a documentary about the Jews of Kastoria. Kastoria is an important religious centre for the Greek Orthodox Church , and is the seat of a metropolitan bishop . The Metropolis of Kastoria is one of the metropolises of

6400-539: The main location for the Greek movement in west Macedonia during this period. As a largely Greek town in west Macedonia at the turn of the 20th century, Kastoria featured prominently in the Greek efforts during the Macedonian Struggle . A notable figure was Germanos Karavangelis , who served as the Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Bishop of Kastoria from 1900 until 1907. Karavangelis thought that

6500-419: The more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the Secret History is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments: Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on

6600-408: The municipal unit 57.318 km. The municipal unit consists of the town Kastoria and the settlements Aposkepos , Kefalari and Chloi. Kastoria has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ). As a result of the moderating effect of the lake, it records less extreme temperatures than the rest of Western Macedonia . Kastoria was the site of previous settlements, the first being Celetrum (or Keletron),

6700-458: The opposite side of emotional spectrum. Justinian was of "approachable and kindly" temperament, even while ordering property confiscations or people's destruction. Conversely, Theodora was described as irrational and driven by her anger, often by minor affronts. Procopius is believed to be aligned with many of the senatorial ranks that disagreed with Justinian and Theodora's tax policies and property confiscations ( Secret History 12.12-14). On

6800-436: The other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared the Secret History as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, which—as a kind of court historian—might be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct,

6900-473: The possible abandonment of the location. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus made an anachronistic mention of Diocletianopolis in his work De Thematibus (10th century). The origins of Kastoria are from the 9th century, as its surrounding walls and oldest churches, such as St. Stephan and the Taxiarchs, date from the era. The first mention of the settlement of Kastoria was by Skylitzes in relation to events of

7000-647: The post-Ottoman future of Macedonia would be decided by Balkan states, and viewed Bulgarian influence in the area as the greatest threat to Greek interests. He formed the earliest Greek armed groups fighting for the region. During the Macedonian struggle, Karavangelis, an imposing figure, traveled in rural areas and directed the Greek response toward supporters of the Bulgarian cause, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO) and

7100-476: The process. It was nearly captured by the Communist Democratic Army of Greece in 1948, and the final battles of the civil war took place on the nearby Mount Gramos in 1949. In 1940, Kastoria came under Italian occupation. In 1943, the judicial courts of Kastoria were destroyed by fire, including the town archive. Italy surrendered in late 1943, and Kastoria came under German control. In April 1944

7200-451: The processing and exporting of animal furs to Europe created wealth, and city mansions, of particular architectural and decorative value, were built. This interconnected nexus of churches and private houses constitutes a rare example of a Byzantine and post-Byzantine township , and remains inhabited to this day. The traditional buildings and manor houses of the "Doltso" and "Apozari" neighbourhoods are threatened by modern development in

7300-589: The regent of Epirus had invaded Thessaly, but was now forced to retreat by Guy's forces. Guy proved less successful, however, in restraining the Catalan Company , which burst into Thessaly in 1306 and proceeded to ravage the region for some three years. By the time Guy died in 1308 John had just come of age and resented the attempt of the new duke of Athens, Walter of Brienne , to maintain Athenian protectorate over Thessaly. To overcome John's resistance, Walter hired

7400-511: The rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it. Similarly, the Theodora of the Secret History is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among

7500-465: The rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written. Some historians have criticized Propocius's description of some barbarians, for example, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was however, inline with Byzantine ethnographic practice in late antiquity. A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. Count Belisarius

7600-415: The scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife. Consequently publication was delayed until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation. Procopius's Wars or History of the Wars ( Ancient Greek : Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι , Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi , "Words on the Wars"; Latin : De Bellis , "On

7700-576: The school of late antique historians who continued the traditions of the Second Sophistic . They wrote in Attic Greek . Their models were Herodotus , Polybius and in particular Thucydides . Their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to

7800-409: The social order of men standing over women. In Averil Cameron's view, Procopius is more aptly described as a reporter rather than a historian, providing a black-and-white description of events, rather than a deeper analysis of the causes and motives. Cameron argues that his intense political focus and exaggeration of the imperial couple's vices prevent a balanced and holistic perspective, resulting in

7900-426: The stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat. Furthermore, Secret History portrays Belisarius as

8000-595: The town is sometimes written as Castoria , especially in older works. The town is known as Kesriye in Turkish , Kostur ( Cyrillic : Костур) in Bulgarian and Macedonian , Kosturi in Albanian and Kusturea in Aromanian . The municipality Kastoria was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 9 former municipalities, that became municipal units: The municipality has an area of 763.330 km,

8100-598: The town with wider Europe. Merchants settled in Germany and Russia . In the seventeenth century, Kastoria was the European fur industry centre and marketplace, and various fur products on offer were imports (such as pelts from Russian sable ), with a majority of Kastorian Jews being wealthy dealers in the fur trade. By the late 18th century, Kastoria had developed a strong Hellenic commercial culture. In Kastoria, Jews participated in trade and tanning production . The Jewish community

8200-490: The trade – the European beaver ( kastóri in Greek), now extinct in the area. Trading in mink fur now predominates and every year an international showcase of fur takes place in the city. Involvement with fur began in the early middle ages, when Kastoria supplied ermine pelts for the robes of Byzantine courtiers. The fur industry was established in Kastoria during the sixteenth century, and extensive trade links emerged connecting

8300-525: The very next year (1334) it was surrendered briefly to the Serbs by the renegade Syrgiannes Palaiologos . The Serbian ruler Stephen Dushan finally captured Kastoria in 1342/3, taking advantage of the ongoing Byzantine civil war , and made it part of his Serbian Empire . After Dushan's death, Kastoria became the seat of Symeon Uroš . The town came later under the Epirote ruler Thomas Preljubović , and then under

8400-544: The vicinity of mosques or in Muslim cemeteries, such as one in Kursum Mosque's courtyard, later destroyed. The turbe of Aydin Baba and the turbe of Kasim Baba were located on a hill above Kastoria, both destroyed. Muslim cemeteries were expropriated and demolished. Procopius Procopius of Caesarea ( Ancient Greek : Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς Prokópios ho Kaisareús ; Latin : Procopius Caesariensis ; c.  500 –565)

8500-402: The vicinity. After Diocletianopolis was destroyed by barbarians, Emperor Justinian relocated it on a promontory projecting into Lake Orestiada , the town's current location, and Procopius writes the emperor "gave it an appropriate name", perhaps indicating that he renamed it Justinianopolis (Ίουστινιανούπολις). References to Justinian's settlement cease during the 7th and 8th centuries, due to

8600-458: The work postdates the building of the bridge over the Sangarius in the late 550s. Historians consider Buildings to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions. Buildings was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes

8700-483: Was Justinian's lack of it that created the impression of strength in her. According to researcher Averil Cameron, the definition of "feminine" behavior in the sixth century would be described as "intriguing" and "interfering". She argues Procopius's intent in including her speech during the Nika riots in the Wars may be to demonstrate that Theodora does not stay in her appropriate role. At his core, Procopius wanted to preserve

8800-657: Was a prominent late antique Greek scholar and historian from Caesarea Maritima . Accompanying the Roman general Belisarius in Emperor Justinian 's wars, Procopius became the principal Roman historian of the 6th century, writing the History of the Wars , the Buildings , and the Secret History . Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life is an entry in the Suda ,

8900-523: Was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor . This had actually been carried out under Anastasius I , who reigned before Justin. Procopius belongs to

9000-414: Was already known from the Suda , which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of The History of the Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558. In

9100-470: Was an "illustrious man" ( Latin : vir illustris ; Ancient Greek : ἰλλούστριος , illoústrios ); being his adsessor , Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" ( vir spectabilis ). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order ( ordo senatorius ). However, the Suda , which is usually well-informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of

9200-410: Was an urban prefect of Constantinople ( praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae ) who was called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect. In fact, some scholars have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of his Secret History that he planned to publish it after

9300-470: Was constructed in 1750, and destroyed during 1828. In 1830, another synagogue named Aragon was erected by the Jewish community. Following World War Two, the Aragon synagogue was sold by the Central Board of Jewish Communities, and the new owners demolished it. The Jewish cemetery of Kastoria was neglected from the late interwar period, and had by the 1970s become overgrown with vegetation. The Greek army expropriated

9400-463: Was formed mostly by Aromanian families. In the late Ottoman period, Kastoria was the seat of a kaza belonging to the sanjak of Görice, within the Vilayet of Monastir. The older presence of Greek cultural tradition led to the establishment of strong Greek national feeling among town inhabitants in an era of conflict arising from nationalism (late 19th and early 20th centuries). As a result, Kastoria became

9500-645: Was involved in the fur industry, and its merchants worked closely with craftsmen who were mainly from the Greek community. The town economy was successful, in particular during the nineteenth century, due to both Jews and Greeks working well together. Slavophone peasants from the wider area would go to Kastoria on market days. By the early twentieth century, Jewish merchants were involved in the trade of fur and tobacco. The Muslim population of Kastoria in 1913 worked as fishermen (30 percent) in Lake Kastoria, in agriculture (13 percent), or were large landowners (16 percent). In

9600-508: Was repurposed following the population exchange into a grain warehouse, later a notary office. In 1950, Kastoria Municipality expropriated and demolished the building. Prodromou Mosque was declared preserved during 1925, later the National Bank sold it and was demolished. Tabahane Mosque was also declared preserved in 1925 and later demolished in unknown circumstances. Hasan Kadi Mosque and Giahli or Giali Mosque were both destroyed. Gazi Mosque

9700-606: Was undergoing restoration work. The Bektashi tekke was dedicated to Kasim Baba , a Sufi holy man. It was demolished. Another tekke belonged to the Hayati, an offshoot of the Halveti Order . Three tekkes, one used by Sufis as a hermitage, another by dervishes and a third affiliated with the Mevlevi Order were all demolished. Another three tekkes were destroyed following the population exchange. Burial monuments (turbes) were located in

9800-502: Was undertaken by its wealthy merchants. The Greek merchants Georgios Kyritses and Manolakis Kastorianos financed Greek education in Kastoria. Greek schools were established in Kastoria, with the oldest in the town and Macedonia being founded in 1614; a second was founded in 1705, and a third in 1715, funded by Kyritses. In 1797–1798, the Greek revolutionary Rigas Feraios was partly based in Kastoria. Among his co-conspirators were several Kastorian Greeks, such as Georgios Theocharis , and

9900-401: Was used by the metropolitan and is well preserved. Kursum Mosque , named for its lead roof was declared preserved during 1925. Prior to Muslims leaving Kastoria, its last imam sold the mosque and under Greece has been used as a museum and as an antiquities warehouse, closed to the public. It is the only surviving mosque in Kastoria in a moderate state of preservation and in the early to mid 2020s

10000-609: Was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in Felix Dahn 's A Struggle for Rome and in L. Sprague de Camp 's alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall . The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the Secret History . The narrator in Herman Melville 's novel Moby-Dick cites Procopius's description of

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