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91-579: Those in The Cultural School of thought include Horney, Erich Fromm , Harry Stack Sullivan , and Clara Thompson . Horney is often classified as neo-Freudian but may also be seen as neo-Adlerian (Ansbacher, 1979), although it is contended neither Horney nor Adler directly influenced one another (Mosak, 1989). Horney was born Karen Danielsen on 16 September 1885 in Blankenese, Germany, near Hamburg . Her father, Berndt Wackels Danielsen (1836–1910),

182-402: A holistic , humanistic view of the individual psyche which placed much emphasis on cultural and social differences worldwide. Horney was also a pioneer in the discipline of feminine psychiatry. As one of the first female psychiatrists, she was the first known woman to present a paper regarding feminine psychiatry. Fourteen of the papers she wrote between 1922 and 1937 were amalgamated into

273-430: A certain economic position which guaranteed a livelihood determined by tradition, just as it carried economic obligations to those higher in the social hierarchy. The culmination of Fromm's social and political philosophy was his book The Sane Society , published in 1955, which argued in favor of a humanistic and democratic socialism . Building primarily upon the early works of Karl Marx , Fromm sought to re-emphasise

364-598: A continuous process—with neuroses commonly occurring sporadically in a person's lifetime. This was in contrast to the opinions of her contemporaries who believed neurosis was, like more severe mental conditions, a negative malfunction of the mind in response to external stimuli, such as bereavement , divorce or negative experiences during childhood and adolescence. This has been debated widely by contemporary psychologists. Horney believed these stimuli to be less important, except for influences during childhood. Rather, she placed significant emphasis on parental indifference towards

455-429: A drive to be ingenious and productive. Women are able to satisfy this need normally and internally—to do this they become pregnant and give birth. Men satisfy this need only through external ways; Horney proposed that the striking accomplishments of men in work or some other field can be viewed as compensation for their inability to give birth to children. Horney developed her ideas to the extent that she released one of

546-401: A freedom that was thought to be an individual's true desire. Fromm's critique of the modern political order and capitalist system led him to seek insights from medieval feudalism . In Escape from Freedom , he found value in the lack of individual freedom, rigid structure, and obligations required on the members of medieval society: What characterizes medieval in contrast to modern society

637-410: A great respect for Freud and his accomplishments. Fromm contended that Freud was one of the "architects of the modern age", alongside Albert Einstein and Karl Marx , but emphasized that he considered Marx both far more historically important than Freud and a finer thinker. Fromm's best known work, Escape from Freedom , focuses on the human urge to seek a source of authority and control upon reaching

728-534: A great uncle on his mother's side was a noted Talmudic scholar. However, Fromm turned away from orthodox Judaism in 1926, towards secular interpretations of scriptural ideals. The cornerstone of Fromm's humanistic philosophy is his interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eve 's exile from the Garden of Eden . Drawing on his knowledge of the Talmud, Fromm pointed out that being able to distinguish between good and evil

819-527: A journal, the American Journal of Psychoanalysis . She taught at the New York Medical College and continued practising as a psychiatrist until her death in 1952. Horney looked at neurosis in a different light from other psychoanalysts of the time. Her expansive interest in the subject led her to compile a detailed theory of neurosis, with data from her patients. Horney believed neurosis to be

910-495: A low-cost treatment center. Patients that are not suitable for psychoanalysis are treated with psychotherapeutic modalities such as supportive psychotherapy, and psychoanalytic psychotherapy, all based on Horney's ideas. Erich Fromm Erich Seligmann Fromm ( / f r ɒ m / ; German: [fʁɔm] ; March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980) was a German-American social psychologist , psychoanalyst , sociologist , humanistic philosopher , and democratic socialist . He

1001-539: A marriage bond should be. Horney explained that the "monogamous demand represents the fulfillment of narcissistic and sadistic impulses far more than it indicates the wishes of genuine love”. Most notably, her work "The Problem of the Monogamous Ideal" was fixed upon marriage, as were six other of Horney's papers. Her essay "Maternal Conflicts" attempted to shed new light on the problems women experience when raising adolescents. Horney believed both men and women have

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1092-611: A more dynamic theoretical and empirical approach. In reference to Fromm's leftist political activism as a public intellectual, Noam Chomsky said "I liked Fromm's attitudes but thought his work was pretty superficial". Franz Alexander Franz Gabriel Alexander (22 January 1891 – 8 March 1964) was a Hungarian - American psychoanalyst and physician , who is considered one of the founders of psychosomatic medicine and psychoanalytic criminology . Franz Gabriel Alexander, in Hungarian Alexander Ferenc Gábor ,

1183-401: A neurotic. The ten needs, as set out by Horney, (classified according to her so-called coping strategies ) are as follows: Moving Toward People (Compliance) Moving Against People (Aggression) Moving Away from People (Withdrawal) Upon investigating the ten needs further, Horney found she was able to condense them into three broad categories: Horney delves into a detailed explanation of

1274-415: A psychiatrist, Horney named ten patterns of neurotic needs. These ten needs are based upon things which she thought all humans require to succeed in life. Horney modified these needs somewhat to correspond with what she believed were individuals' neuroses. A neurotic person could theoretically exhibit all of these needs, though in practice fewer than the ten here need to be present for a person to be considered

1365-536: A psychoanalyst—she met the business student Oskar Horney. They married in 1909. The couple moved to Berlin together, where Oskar worked in industry while Karen continued her studies at the Charité . Within the space of one year, Karen gave birth to her first child and lost both of her parents. She entered psychoanalysis to help herself cope. Her first analyst was Karl Abraham in 1910, then she moved to Hanns Sachs . Karen and Oskar had three daughters. The first, born in 1911,

1456-399: A relationship bordering on sadomasochism as a morbid dependency . She believed individuals in the neurotic categories of narcissism and resignation were much less susceptible to such relationships of co-dependency with an arrogant-vindictive neurotic. While non-neurotic individuals may strive for these needs, neurotics exhibit a much deeper, more willful and concentrated desire to fulfill

1547-428: A revival of interest in the idea. It was championed again by Moberly (1985). In the latter's view, corrective emotional experience represents essentially what is therapeutic in analysis'. Even those with continuing reservations about the idea conceded that 'when Alexander was writing ... it was pertinent for him to be drawing attention to the therapeutic value of the emotional experience of patients in analysis'. In

1638-608: A set of idealist ethics, which only embrace the status quo . Fromm's response, in both The Sane Society and in The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness , argues that Freud indeed deserves substantial credit for recognizing the central importance of the unconscious, but also that he tended to reify his own concepts that depicted the self as the passive outcome of instinct and social control, with minimal volition or variability. Fromm argues that later scholars such as Marcuse accepted these concepts as dogma, whereas social psychology requires

1729-546: A simple condemnation of authoritarian value systems, Fromm used the story of Adam and Eve as an allegorical explanation for human biological evolution and existential angst, asserting that when Adam and Eve ate from the Tree of Knowledge, they became aware of themselves as being separate from nature while still being part of it. This is why they felt "naked" and "ashamed": they had evolved into human beings , conscious of themselves, their own mortality, and their powerlessness before

1820-478: A single volume titled Feminine Psychology (1967). As a woman, she felt the mapping out of trends in female behaviour was a neglected issue. Women were regarded as objects of charm and beauty—at variance with every human being's ultimate purpose of self-actualization . Women, according to Horney, traditionally gain value only through their children and the wider family. She de-romanticized the Victorian concept of how

1911-667: A training institute for those who were interested in Horney's own organization, the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. She founded this organization after becoming dissatisfied with the generally strict, orthodox nature of the prevailing psychoanalytic community. Horney's deviation from Freudian psychology led to her resigning from her post, and she soon took up teaching in the New York Medical College . She also founded

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2002-443: A wide variety of subjects to the work of the "second psychoanalytic generation". 'Alexander in his "vector analysis"... measured the relative participation of the three basic directions in which an organism's tendencies towards the external world may be effective: reception, elimination, and retention'. In this he may have been a forerunner to Erik H. Erikson 's later exploration of 'Zones, Modes, and Modalities'. He also explored

2093-622: A worsening of Horney's mental health. She entered into a second period of deep depression; she swam out to sea during a vacation and considered committing suicide. In 1926, Horney and her husband separated; they would divorce in 1937. She and their three daughters moved out of Oskar's house. Oskar had proven to be very similar to Horney's father, with an authoritarian personality. After studying more psychoanalytic theory, Horney regretted not objecting to her husband ruling over their children when they were younger. Despite her increasing deviation from orthodox Freudian doctrine, she practised and taught at

2184-436: Is an acquiring and assimilating materials/valuables character trait. The marketing orientation arises in response to the human situation in the modern era. The current needs of the market determine value. It is a relativistic ethic. In contrast, the productive orientation is an objective ethic. Despite the existential struggles of humanity, each human has the potential for love, reason and productive work in life. Fromm writes, "It

2275-409: Is different from Horney's other major defensive strategies or solutions in that it is not compensatory. Self-idealization is compensatory in her theory, but it differs from narcissism. All the defensive strategies involve self-idealization, but in the narcissistic solution, it tends to be the product of indulgence rather than deprivation. The narcissist's self-esteem is not strong, however, because it

2366-456: Is generally considered to be a virtue, but that biblical scholars generally consider Adam and Eve to have sinned by disobeying God and eating from the Tree of Knowledge . However, departing from traditional religious orthodoxy on this, Fromm extolled the virtues of humans taking independent action and using reason to establish moral values rather than adhering to authoritarian moral values. Beyond

2457-410: Is its lack of individual freedom…But altogether a person was not free in the modern sense, neither was he alone and isolated. In having a distinct, unchangeable, and unquestionable place in the social world from the moment of birth, man was rooted in a structuralized whole, and thus life had a meaning which left no place, and no need for doubt…There was comparatively little competition. One was born into

2548-416: Is not based on genuine accomplishments. Mosak (1989) states that while there is no direct evidence Alfred Adler and Horney influenced one another, they landed at similar theoretical understandings. While Horney acknowledged and agreed with Freud on many issues, she was also critical of him on several key beliefs. Like others whose views differed from that of Freud, Horney felt sex and aggression were not

2639-444: Is the healthy person's aim through life—as opposed to the neurotic's clinging to a set of key needs. According to Horney we can have two views of our self: the " real self " and the "ideal self". The real self is who and what we actually are. The ideal self is the type of person we feel we should be. The real self has the potential for growth, happiness, will power, realization of gifts, etc., but it also has deficiencies. The ideal self

2730-490: Is the paradox of human existence that man must simultaneously seek for closeness and for independence; for oneness with others and at the same time for the preservation of his uniqueness and particularity. ...the answer to this paradox – and to the moral problems of man – is productiveness." Fromm's four non-productive orientations were subject to validation through a psychometric test, The Person Relatedness Test by Elias H. Porter, PhD in collaboration with Carl Rogers , PhD at

2821-458: Is used as a model to assist the real self in developing its potential and achieving self-actualization. (Engler 125) But it is important to know the differences between our ideal and real self. The neurotic person's self is split between an idealized self and a real self. As a result, neurotic individuals feel they somehow do not live up to the ideal self. They feel there is a flaw somewhere in comparison to what they "should" be. The goals set out by

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2912-612: The Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute . 'In the early 1920s, Oliver Freud was in analysis with Franz Alexander' there — Sigmund Freud 's son — while 'Charles Odier, one of the first among French psychoanalysts, was analysed in Berlin by Franz Alexander' as well. In 1930 he was invited by Robert Hutchins , then President of the University of Chicago , to become its Visiting Professor of Psychoanalysis. Alexander worked there at

3003-690: The Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis , where Paul Rosenfels was one of his students. In the 1950s he was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research . Franz Alexander died in Palm Springs, California in 1964. Alexander was a prolific writer. Between 'The Castration Complex in the Formation of Character [1923] ... [&] Fundamental Concepts of Psychosomatic Research [1943]' he published nearly twenty other articles, contributing on

3094-671: The New School for Social Research and the New York Psychoanalytic Institute . It was in Brooklyn Horney developed and advanced her composite theories regarding neurosis and personality , based on experiences gained from working in psychotherapy . In 1937 she published The Neurotic Personality of Our Time , which had wide popular readership. By 1941, Horney was Dean of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis,

3185-432: The University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of jurisprudence . During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg , where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber (brother of sociologist Max Weber ), psychiatrist-philosopher Karl Jaspers , and Heinrich Rickert . Fromm received his Ph.D. in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922 with a dissertation "On Jewish Law". Fromm at

3276-417: The 'morality demanded by the archaic superego ... an automatized pseudo morality, characterized by Alexander as the corruptibility of the superego'. Notable too was his exploration of acting out in real life, 'in which the patient's entire life consists of actions not adapted to reality but rather aimed at relieving unconscious tensions. It was this type of neurosis that was first described by Alexander under

3367-732: The American political scene, although he did write a paper in 1974 entitled Remarks on the Policy of Détente for a hearing held by the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations . Fromm was awarded the Nelly Sachs Prize in 1979. In Eros and Civilization , Herbert Marcuse is critical of Fromm: In the beginning, he was a radical theorist, but later he turned to conformity. Marcuse also noted that Fromm, as well as his close colleagues Sullivan and Karen Horney, removed Freud's libido theory and other radical concepts, which thus reduced psychoanalysis to

3458-641: The Berlin Psychoanalytic Society until 1932. Freud's increasing coolness toward her and her concern over the rise of Nazism in Germany motivated her to accept an invitation by Franz Alexander to become his assistant at the Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis, and in 1932, she and her daughters moved to the United States. Two years after moving to Chicago, Horney relocated to Brooklyn . Brooklyn

3549-559: The Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training. After the Nazi takeover of power in Germany, Fromm moved first to Geneva and then, in 1934, to Columbia University in New York. Together with Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan , Fromm belongs to a Neo-Freudian school of psychoanalytical thought. Horney and Fromm each had a marked influence on

3640-690: The Psychology of Ethics , first published in 1947, continued and enriched the ideas of Escape from Freedom . Taken together, these books outlined Fromm's theory of human character, which was a natural outgrowth of Fromm's theory of human nature. Fromm's most popular book was The Art of Loving , an international bestseller first published in 1956, which recapitulated and complemented the theoretical principles of human nature found in Escape from Freedom and Man for Himself —principles which were revisited in many of Fromm's other major works. Central to Fromm's world view

3731-478: The Society's training program, taught students, and conducted psychoanalytic research. She also saw patients for private psychoanalytic sessions, and continued to work at the hospital. By 1923, Oskar Horney's firm became insolvent , and Oskar developed meningitis soon after. He rapidly became embittered, morose and argumentative. That same year, Horney's brother died of a pulmonary infection. Both events contributed to

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3822-569: The University of Chicago's Counseling Center between 1953 and 1955. Fromm's four non-productive orientations also served as basis for the LIFO test, first published in 1967 by Stuart Atkins, Alan Katcher, PhD, and Elias Porter , PhD and the Strength Deployment Inventory , first published in 1971 by Elias H. Porter, PhD. Fromm also influenced his student Sally L. Smith who went on to become

3913-722: The Western and Eastern cooperation between Marxist humanists, Fromm published a series of articles entitled Socialist Humanism: An International Symposium . In 1966, the American Humanist Association named him Humanist of the Year. For a period, Fromm was also active in U.S. politics. He joined the Socialist Party of America in the mid-1950s, and did his best to help them provide an alternative viewpoint to McCarthyist trends in some US political thought. This alternative viewpoint

4004-483: The above needs (and their corresponding neurotic solutions) in her book Neurosis and Human Growth . Horney saw narcissism quite differently from Freud , Kohut, and other mainstream psychoanalytic theorists in that she did not posit a primary narcissism but saw the narcissistic personality as the product of a certain kind of early environment acting on a certain kind of temperament. For her, narcissistic needs and tendencies are not inherent in human nature. Narcissism

4095-405: The autonomy of their fellow human beings, much less the objective knowledge of what other people truly wanted and needed. Fromm believed that freedom was an aspect of human nature that we either embrace or escape. He observed that embracing our freedom of will was healthy, whereas escaping freedom through the use of escape mechanisms was the root of psychological conflicts. Fromm outlined three of

4186-413: The child, believing a child's perception of events, as opposed to the parent's intentions, is the key to understanding a person's neurosis. For instance, a child might feel a lack of warmth and affection should a parent make fun of the child's feelings. The parent may also casually neglect to fulfill promises, which in turn could have a detrimental effect on the child's mental state. From her experiences as

4277-404: The concept of autoplastic adaptation . They proposed that when an individual was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways: From the 1930s through the 1950s, numerous analysts were engaged with the question of how to shorten the course of therapy but still achieve therapeutic effectiveness. These included Alexander, Ferenczi, and Wilhelm Reich. Alexander found that

4368-408: The contradictions between the two theories. Fromm also criticized Freud's dualistic thinking. According to Fromm, Freudian descriptions of human consciousness as struggles between two poles were narrow and limiting. Fromm also condemned Freud as a misogynist unable to think outside the patriarchal milieu of early 20th century Vienna. However, in spite of these criticisms, Fromm nonetheless expressed

4459-424: The criticism by Marcuse below ). Fromm considered love an interpersonal creative capacity rather than an emotion , and he distinguished this creative capacity from what he considered to be various forms of narcissistic neuroses and sado-masochistic tendencies that are commonly held out as proof of "true love". Indeed, Fromm viewed the experience of "falling in love" as evidence of one's failure to understand

4550-534: The early writings of Marx and his humanist messages to the US and Western European public. He engaged with a Christian-Marxist intellectual dialogue group organized by Milan Machovec and others in 1960s Communist Czechoslovakia . In the early 1960s, Fromm published two books dealing with Marxist thought ( Marx's Concept of Man and Beyond the Chains of Illusion: My Encounter with Marx and Freud ). In 1965, working to stimulate

4641-486: The fact she was seen by most as pretty. At this time she developed a crush on her older brother, who became embarrassed by her attentions — soon pushing her away. She suffered the first of several bouts of depression — an issue that would plague her for the rest of her life. In 1904, when Karen was 19, her mother left her father (without divorcing him), taking the children with her. Against her parents' wishes, Horney entered medical school in 1906. The University of Freiburg

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4732-549: The first " self-help " books in 1946, entitled Are You Considering Psychoanalysis? . The book asserted that those, both male and female, with relatively minor neurotic problems could, in effect, be their own psychiatrists. She continually stressed self-awareness was a part of becoming a better, stronger, richer human being. In the mid-1930s, Horney stopped writing on the topic of feminine psychology and never resumed. Her biographer B.J. Paris writes: Horney's apparent loss of interest in feminine psychology has led some to contend she

4823-489: The following basic needs: Fromm's thesis of the "escape from freedom" is epitomized in the following passage. The "individualized man" referenced by Fromm is man bereft of the "primary ties" of belonging (such as nature, family, etc.), also expressed as "freedom from": There is only one possible, productive solution for the relationship of individualized man with the world: his active solidarity with all men and his spontaneous activity, love and work, which unite him again with

4914-500: The forces of nature and society, and no longer united with the universe as they were in their instinctive , pre-human existence as animals. According to Fromm, the awareness of a disunited human existence is a source of guilt and shame , and the solution to this existential dichotomy is found in the development of one's uniquely human powers of love and reason. However, Fromm distinguished his concept of love from unreflective popular notions as well as Freudian paradoxical love (see

5005-437: The forties ... Franz Alexander, following the lead of Sandor Ferenczi, proposed ... the form of a "corrective emotional experience", which enjoyed an enormous vogue. Alexander stated: The patient, in order to be helped, must undergo a corrective emotional experience suitable to repair the traumatic influence of previous experiences. It is of secondary importance whether this corrective experience takes place during treatment in

5096-650: The founder of the Lab School of Washington and the Baltimore Lab School. Fromm examined the life and work of Sigmund Freud at length. He identified a discrepancy between early and later Freudian theory: namely that, prior to World War I, Freud had described human drives as a tension between desire and repression, but after the end of the war, began framing human drives as a struggle between biologically universal Life and Death ( Eros and Thanatos ) instincts. Fromm charged Freud and his followers with never acknowledging

5187-480: The graduate division of Arts and Sciences at New York University after 1962. He taught at UNAM until his retirement, in 1965, and at the Mexican Society of Psychoanalysis (SMP) until 1974. In 1974 he moved from Mexico City to Muralto , Switzerland, and died at his home in 1980, five days before his eightieth birthday. All the while, Fromm maintained his own clinical practice and published a series of books. Fromm

5278-413: The ideal of freedom, missing from most Soviet Marxism and more frequently found in the writings of libertarian socialists and liberal theoreticians. Fromm's brand of socialism rejected both Western capitalism and Soviet communism , which he saw as dehumanizing, and which resulted in the virtually universal modern phenomenon of alienation . He became one of the founders of socialist humanism , promoting

5369-436: The least resistant. They were the least resistant because they were the least traumatised and therefore had the smallest burden of repressed emotion. However, among the patients coming to the clinic for various problems, the rapid responders represented only a small minority. What could be offered to those who represented the vast bulk of patients coming for treatment? See further Intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy . In

5460-610: The most common escape mechanisms: The word biophilia was frequently used by Fromm as a description of a productive psychological orientation and " state of being ". For example, in an addendum to his book The Heart of Man: Its Genius For Good and Evil , Fromm wrote as part of his humanist credo : "I believe that the man choosing progress can find a new unity through the development of all his human forces, which are produced in three orientations. These can be presented separately or together: biophilia, love for humanity and nature, and independence and freedom." Erich Fromm postulated

5551-426: The name of neurotic character'. Franz Alexander led the movement looking for the dynamic interrelation between mind and body. Sigmund Freud pursued a deep interest in psychosomatic illnesses following his correspondence with Georg Groddeck who was, at the time, researching the possibility of treating physical disorders through psychological processes. Together with Freud and Sándor Ferenczi , Alexander developed

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5642-451: The neurotic are not realistic , or indeed possible. The real self then degenerates into a "despised self", and the neurotic person assumes this is the "true" self. Thus, the neurotic is like a clock's pendulum, oscillating between a fallacious "perfection" and a manifestation of self-hate . Horney referred to this phenomenon as the " tyranny of the shoulds " and the neurotic's hopeless "search for glory". She concluded these ingrained traits of

5733-535: The other's thought, with Horney illuminating some aspects of psychoanalysis for Fromm and the latter elucidating sociology for Horney. Their relationship ended in the late 1930s. After leaving Columbia, Fromm helped form the New York branch of the Washington School of Psychiatry in 1943, and in 1946 co-founded the William Alanson White Institute of Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis, and Psychology. He

5824-465: The patients who tended to benefit the most greatly from therapy were those who could rapidly engage, could describe a specific therapeutic focus, and could quickly move to an experience of their previously warded-off feelings. These also happened to represent those patients who were the healthiest to begin with and therefore had the least need for the therapy being offered. Clinical research revealed that these patients were able to benefit because they were

5915-507: The primary factors that shape personality. Horney, along with Adler, believed there were greater influences on personality, including social relationship factors during childhood, rather than just repressed sexual passions. The two focused more on how the conscious mind plays a role in human personality, not just subconscious repression. Freud's notion of " penis envy " was particularly subject to criticism, as well. She thought Freud had merely stumbled upon women's jealousy of men's generic power in

6006-465: The psyche forever prevent an individual's potential from being actualized unless the cycle of neurosis is somehow broken, through treatment or, in less severe cases, life lesson. The Karen Horney Clinic opened on May 6, 1955 in New York City, in honor of Horney's achievements. The institution seeks to research and train medical professionals, particularly in the psychiatric fields, as well as serving as

6097-403: The said needs. Horney also shared Abraham Maslow 's view that self-actualization is something that all people strive for. By "self" she understood the core of one's own being and potential. Horney believed that if we have an accurate conception of our own self, then we are free to realize our potential and achieve what we wish, within reasonable boundaries. Thus, she believed self-actualization

6188-499: The sixties, Alexander's conception was in retreat, and at the close of the following decade an analyst could ask rhetorically 'Who talks about Franz Alexander today — except those who want to put down his "corrective emotional experience" or to deny, as the Kohutians are at constant pains to do, that they are offering more of the same?'. Ongoing developments in object relations theory and the rise of self psychology would however lead to

6279-638: The stresses of life. The expansive solution became a tripartite combination of narcissistic, perfectionistic and arrogant-vindictive approaches to life. (Horney had previously focused on the psychiatric concept of narcissism in a book published in 1939, New Ways in Psychoanalysis .) Her other two neurotic "solutions" were also a refinement of her previous views: self-effacement, or submission to others, and resignation, or detachment from others. She described case studies of symbiotic relationships between arrogant-vindictive and self-effacing individuals, labeling such

6370-563: The subject of neurosis. Horney's mature theory of neurosis , according to Paris, "makes a major contribution to psychological thought—particularly the study of personality—that deserves to be more widely known and applied than it is." Near the end of her career, Karen Horney summarized her ideas in Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization , her major work published in 1950. It's in this book she summarizes her ideas regarding neurosis, clarifying her three neurotic "solutions" to

6461-775: The time became strongly involved in Zionism , under the influence of the religious Zionist rabbi Nehemia Anton Nobel. He was very active in Jewish Studentenverbindungen and other Zionist organisations. But he soon turned away from Zionism, saying that it conflicted with his ideal of a "universalist Messianism and Humanism". During the mid-1920s, he trained to become a psychoanalyst through Frieda Reichmann 's psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg . They married in 1926, but separated shortly after and divorced in 1942. He began his own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930 he joined

6552-426: The transference relationship, or parallel with the treatment in the daily life of the patient. The concept provoked much controversy, provoking opposition from figures as disparate as Kurt R. Eissler , Edward Glover , and Jacques Lacan , who later said 'I did not hesitate to attack it myself in the most categorical way ... at the 1950 Congress of Psychiatry, but, it is the construction of a man of great talent'. By

6643-555: The true nature of love, which he believed always had the common elements of care , responsibility , respect , and knowledge . Drawing from his knowledge of the Torah , Fromm pointed to the story of Jonah , who did not wish to save the residents of Nineveh from the consequences of their sin, as demonstrative of his belief that the qualities of care and responsibility are generally absent from most human relationships . Fromm also asserted that few people in modern society had respect for

6734-803: The world by: 1) acquiring and assimilating things—"Assimilation", and 2) reacting to people—"Socialization". Fromm asserted that these two ways of relating to the world were not instinctive, but an individual's response to the peculiar circumstances of his or her life; he also believed that people are never exclusively one type of orientation. These two ways of relating to life's circumstances lead to basic character-orientations. Fromm lists four types of nonproductive character orientation, which he called receptive, exploitative, hoarding, and marketing, and one positive character orientation, which he called productive. Receptive and exploitative orientations are basically how an individual may relate to other people and are socialization attributes of character. A hoarding orientation

6825-419: The world which promises relief from uncertainty, even if it deprives the individual of his freedom. In his book Man for Himself Fromm spoke of " orientation of character ". He differentiates his theory of character from that of Freud by focusing on two ways an individual relates to the world. Freud analyzed character in terms of libido organization, whereas Fromm says that in the process of living, we relate to

6916-557: The world, not by primary ties but as a free and independent individual.... However, if the economic, social and political conditions... do not offer a basis for the realization of individuality in the sense just mentioned, while at the same time people have lost those ties which gave them security, this lag makes freedom an unbearable burden. It then becomes identical with doubt, with a kind of life which lacks meaning and direction. Powerful tendencies arise to escape from this kind of freedom into submission or some kind of relationship to man and

7007-546: The world. Horney accepted penis envy might occur occasionally in neurotic women, but stated that " womb envy " occurs just as much in men: Horney felt men were envious of a woman's ability to bear children. The degree to which men are driven to success may be merely a substitute for the fact they cannot carry, bear, and nurture children. Horney also thought men were envious of women because they fulfill their position in society by simply "being", whereas men achieve their manhood according to their ability to provide and succeed. Horney

7098-474: Was Brigitte Horney , who became a famous actress. Horney is often thought of primarily as a neo-Freudian member of "the cultural school," which also includes Erich Fromm , Harry Stack Sullivan , Clara Thompson , and Abram Kardiner . In 1920, Horney was a founding member of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute . She then took up a teaching position within the Institute. She helped design and eventually directed

7189-538: Was "a cruel disciplinary figure," who also held his son Berndt in higher regard than Karen. Instead of being offended or feeling indignation over Karen's perceptions of him, her father brought her gifts from far-away countries. Despite this, Karen always felt deprived of her father's affection and instead became attached to her mother. From roughly the age of nine Karen became ambitious and somewhat rebellious. She felt she could not become pretty, and instead decided to vest her energies into her intellectual qualities — despite

7280-511: Was Norwegian but had German citizenship. He was a ship's captain in the merchant marine, and a Protestant traditionalist (his children nicknamed him "the Bible-thrower", as he did indeed throw Bibles). Her mother, Clotilde, née van Ronzelen (1853–1911), known as "Sonni", was also Protestant, of Dutch origin. She was said to be more open-minded than Berndt, and yet she was "depressed, irritable, and domineering toward Karen". Karen's elder brother

7371-525: Was a German Jew who fled the Nazi regime and settled in the United States. He was one of the founders of The William Alanson White Institute of Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis and Psychology in New York City and was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory . Erich Fromm was born on March 23, 1900, at Frankfurt am Main , the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents, Rosa (Krause) and Naphtali Fromm. He started his academic studies in 1918 at

7462-497: Was also named Berndt, and Karen cared for him deeply. She also had four elder half-siblings from her father's previous marriage. However, there was no contact between the children of her father's two marriages. Horney kept diaries beginning at the age of thirteen. These journals showed Horney's confidence in her path for the future. She considered becoming a doctor, even though, at that time, women were not allowed to attend universities. According to Horney's adolescent diaries her father

7553-602: Was best expressed in his 1961 paper May Man Prevail? An Inquiry into the Facts and Fictions of Foreign Policy . However, as a co-founder of SANE , Fromm's strongest political activism was in the international peace movement , fighting against the nuclear arms race and U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . After supporting Senator Eugene McCarthy 's losing bid for the Democratic presidential nomination , Fromm more or less retreated from

7644-502: Was bewildered by psychiatrists' tendency to place so much emphasis on the male sexual organ . Horney also reworked the Freudian Oedipal complex of the sexual elements, claiming the clinging to one parent and jealousy of the other was simply the result of anxiety, caused by a disturbance in the parent-child relationship. Despite these variances with the prevalent Freudian view, Horney strove to reformulate Freudian thought, presenting

7735-522: Was born into a Jewish family in Budapest in 1891, his father was Bernhard Alexander , a philosopher and literary critic, his nephew was Alfréd Rényi , a Hungarian mathematician who made contributions in combinatorics, graph theory, number theory but mostly in probability theory. Alexander studied in Berlin; there he was part of an influential group of German analysts mentored by Karl Abraham , including Karen Horney and Helene Deutsch , and gathered around

7826-673: Was his interpretation of the Talmud and Hasidism . He began studying Talmud as a young man under Rabbi J. Horowitz and later under Rabbi Salman Baruch Rabinkow, a Chabad Hasid . While working towards his doctorate in sociology at the University of Heidelberg , Fromm studied the Tanya by the founder of Chabad, Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi . Fromm also studied under Nehemia Nobel and Ludwig Krause while studying in Frankfurt. Fromm's grandfather and two great-grandfathers on his father's side were rabbis , and

7917-450: Was home to a large Jewish community, including a growing number of refugees from Nazi Germany, and psychoanalysis thrived there. It was in Brooklyn Horney became friends with analysts such as Harry Stack Sullivan and Erich Fromm . She had a sexual relationship with Fromm that ended bitterly. While living in Brooklyn, Horney taught and trained psychoanalysts in New York City, working both at

8008-487: Was in fact one of the first institutions in Germany to enroll women in medical courses—with higher education only becoming available to women in Germany in 1900. By 1908, Horney had transferred to the University of Göttingen , and would transfer once more to the University of Berlin before graduating with an M.D. in 1913. Attending several universities was common at the time to gain a basic medical education. Through her fellow student Carl Müller-Braunschweig—who later became

8099-503: Was never really a feminist, despite the fact she was far ahead of her time in her trenchant critique of the patriarchal ideology of her culture and the phallocentricity of psychoanalysis. Janet Sayers argues that although Horney's "rejection of Freud's work in the name of women's self-esteem has certainly inspired many feminists," she herself "was far too much of an individualist ever to engage in collective political struggle—feminist or otherwise." Instead, she became increasingly interested in

8190-561: Was on the faculty of Bennington College from 1941 to 1949, and taught courses at the New School for Social Research in New York from 1941 to 1959. When Fromm moved to Mexico City in 1949, he became a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and established a psychoanalytic section at the medical school there. Meanwhile, he taught as a professor of psychology at Michigan State University from 1957 to 1961 and as an adjunct professor of psychology at

8281-555: Was reportedly an atheist but described his position as " nontheistic mysticism ". Beginning with his first seminal work of 1941, Escape from Freedom (known in Britain as The Fear of Freedom ), Fromm's writings were notable as much for their social and political commentary as for their philosophical and psychological underpinnings. Indeed, Escape from Freedom is viewed as one of the founding works of political psychology . His second important work, Man for Himself: An Inquiry into

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